The Man of the New Millenium

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The Man of the New Millennium

"Don't cry son, be a man about it." Across the United States, young boys hold back tears in fear of shaming their fathers. "Go ahead and let it all out son," says a comforting mother as her son cries on her shoulder. Boys are also taught to show emotion and talk about problems with their mothers. When boys become men, expectations about communication with wives and girlfriends arise. These conflicting expectations and teachings easily serve as a source of confusion to young boys or adolescents as they make their journey toward manhood. Once men are involved with women in long term relationships, the confusion continues as good communication becomes a necessity. Our country teaches its young boys that real men do not cry or show emotion, yet, they should be able to communicate with their partners and be in touch with their emotions. The changing expectations placed on maturing boys, single men, and men involved in a relationship are conflicting and confusing. Although emotional expectations placed on men may conflict, it is possible for men to improve the way they communicate with their partners.

In the traditional views presented about boyhood, there is a theme do not show emotion.

Jon Katz's, How Boys Become Men, describes the unspoken laws that govern boyhood. These rules include, "Never Rat. If your parents ask about your bruises, shrug. Never admit fear. Ride the roller coaster, join the fistfight, do what you have to do. Asking for help is for sissies. Empathy is for nerds. You can help your best buddy under certain circumstances. Everyone else is on his own. Never discuss anything of substance with anybody. Grunt, shrug, dump on teachers, laugh at wimps, talk about comic books. Anything else is risky," (Katz 484). As one can tell, Katz's rules for boys predominately apply to the showing of emotions. Katz's rules say that if a boy shows fear, sadness, empathy or any emotions, that boy is not fulfilling his role well and therefore will not fulfill his role well as a man in society. The unwritten rules among boys and men, do not allow for emotions to be expressed. Katz's interviewee admits, " you learn early on to hide what you feel," (Katz 485). The rules of boyhood present a problem when boys, who have trained themselves to not show emotion, become men. Men remember not showing emotion as boys, so it becomes difficult to show emotion while an adult.

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Many women feel that the men in their lives do not show enough emotion. Men do not show as much emotion as women as a result of emotion suppression as boys. Men seem to follow the rule of never talking about anything of substance. Also, men and women view problems differently. Women empathize with each other and relate their own problems to the speaker, while men believe that their problems are not that bad (Tannen 4). In Sex, Lies, and Conversation, Deborah Tannen discusses some of the problems couples face as a result of the male point of view and lack of communication. The most common reason for failed marriages is lack of communication, (Tannen ). Women prefer to their husbands to be participatory listeners. That is, listeners who make noises while listening such as "mmhm," "uhhuh," and "yeah,". These noises reassure the woman that the conversation partner is listening. Also when women speak, they tend to prefer a conversation partner that will agree with them. Men on the other hand prefer to debate things. While this seems like a minor difference, it can cause problems with women looking for support from their husbands or partners. Women may see a man's point in the conversation as an attack.

While it seems that the male lack of communication and refusal to show emotion are the only two reasons communication fails, women also contribute to the problem. To many men, the constant listener-noises that women make act as a sign of overreaction or impatience. Also, when women practice "participatory listening," men see it as an interruption and intrusion.

To fix communication problems, couples need to work to make compromises or to change. The difficult aspect of communication for many men is showing emotions. In Katz's How Boys Become Men, his interviewee admits, "I've gotten better at [showing emotions], but it will never come naturally," (Katz 485). But while many men struggle to show emotion and talk about their feelings, some seem to develop a softer side over night. According to Katz, "Some men get shocked into sensitivity- when they lose their jobs, their wives, or their lovers. Others learn it through a strong marriage, or through their own children," (Katz 485). Once men begin to feel comfortable with their emotions, they should learn how to comfortably communicate with wives or lovers. Making eye contact and using appropriate body language are also two important thing women look at during communication. In order to feel more comfortable while talking, men shouldn't interpret "listening noises," as noises of judgment or impatience. Women make noises like "mmhm," in order to let the speaker know he or she is being listened to. Men also need to realize when women practice "participatory listening," and finish each others sentences, it isn't a sign of impatience or lack of attention. Participatory listening is in fact, the female way of showing support and empathy. Women can also help communicate with their partners. It is natural for a man to present a different point of view while speaking to a woman. Women need to learn not to take this new point of view as an attack. Also, women should understand that in order to show emotions and feeling, men must fight through a lifetime of acting tough and hiding emotions.

Society has conflicting expectations of boys and men. Boys act tough, show no fear, and never cry. Men are not expected to act too differently from boys until they become involved in a relationship or marriage. When communication problems arise, men are forced to overcome their boyhood lessons and rules in order to become better partners. Gaining harmony with emotions and feeling is the male's first step in becoming a better communicator.

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Thang Doan

5th Period

11/1/0

Innovative Aviation Technology

On December 1, 10, the Wright Brothers took off, covering a hundred and twenty feet in twelve seconds, it became the first successful, controlled, powered, man-made flight. This was the spark of aviation technology. After testing their second and third flyers, the distance and speed increased. It proved the power of flight will be a great asset to mankind and it will substantially evolve in the future.

Otto Lilienthal had always dreamed of flying. He was a crazy birdman, a genius and an inspiration to few. In 1860s, Lilienthal had studied young storks learning how to fly and tried to imitate them by creating wings and flapping his arms. He made several gliders out of light willow wand and cotton fabric. Lilienthal position himself in the center of the wings, with his feet touching the floor, then runs downhill to the wind, catching an upward air current, and slowly soar up into the air. He managed to reach up to 1,150 feet of distance. On Sunday morning in 186, Lilienthal flew his glider again, a gust of wind caught him off course and he fell 50 feet to the earth. He was reported with a broken spine and died the following day. An eccentric genius died regretting having so much to learn. Soon two brothers from Ohio will come and pick off where he had lefted.(Somerville, 1, p. 4)

The Wright Brothers started off with the work of previous inventors that did not succeed in making a successful plane. Such as German engineer, Otto Lilienthal who worked with several gliders and Octave Chanute who also was proficient in gliders. In 10, the Wrights incorporated a 16-horsepower engine and separated the wing-warping controls from the rudder controls (Somerville, 1, p.5) They went to Daytona to test their new improved plane. It happens to be a cold, chilly day, the propeller shafts were damaged and had to be sent back to Dayton for repair. Wilbur took off covering 60 feet and ended in a crash. Three days later, Orville decided to takeoff, covering 10 feet in 1 seconds. The same day, Wilbur flew for 5 seconds and a distance of 85 feet. A person who witness the flight began running down the beach, yelling out, "They have done it! Damned if they ain't flew!" (Somerville, 1, p.5)

After the World War I, aircraft designers began dreaming of faster, stronger, more powerful airplanes, and many pilots were eager to test these new powerful machines. Events such as air racing attracted many pilots in reward of cash and trophy prizes. Others, dream to travel across an ocean or circle the globe or break a speed record. Such ventures were rewarded even higher and many rewards and prizes. In March 17, Charles Lindenberg flew the 'Spirit of St. Louis' nonstop over the Atlantic Ocean, from coast of New York to Paris(,610 miles). The flight had taken hours and 0 minutes (National Air and Space Museum, 1,

http//www.nasm.si.edu/galleries/gal100/stlouis.html). As a result, Lindenberg's fame was spread across the world, his successful flight proved that the use of airplanes were safe, and it will be a great way of transportation.

In 14, The Bell XP-5A demonstrated the efficiency of jet-planes. The later advance model, Bell X-1 made a remarkable achievement. It became the first airplane to surpass the speed of sound (700 miles) (National Air and Space Museum, 1, http//www.nasm.si.edu/galleries/gal100/bellX1.html). Many dozens had died trying to break the 'sound barrier.' The first airplanes that tried to reach the speed of sound encountered violent shaking, increased drag, and a loss of a lift and control. (Nation Air and Space Museum, 1, http//www.nasm.si.edu/research/aero/aircraft/bellx1.html). Whoever approached this limit usually breaks apart and crashed. At the time, people believed that there was some sort of sound barrier that could not be broken. The X-1 was a bullet-shaped airplane, constructed with high-strength aluminum, including two propellant tanks, twelve nitrogen spheres for fuel, and its -ton thrust rocket engine. With it's newly design rocket engine, it flew at 57 miles and at an altitude of 71,00 feet. This was the highest velocity and altitude created at that time. In succeeding and pride, General Vandenberg stated "marked the end of the first great period of the air age, and the beginning of the second. In a few moments the subsonic period became history and the supersonic period was born." (Somerville, 1, pg 10)

In 15, the X-15 was unleashed, a rocket powered research airplane. After the first couple of tests, it became the first airplane to reach hypersonic speeds of Mach 4, 5, and 6. It also reached the highest altitude going well above 100,000 feet (Somerville, 1, p. 16). In one test, it reached an altitude more than 67 miles, it was consider as a spacecraft rather than a airplane. The main factor of the miraculous speed is the air flow that exceeds the speed of sound. In traveling at supersonic speeds, the airplane has to overcome many barriers of the air. When the airplane approaches the speed Mach 1, the airflow on the wing reaches the supersonic speed before the airplane itself does. A shockwave forms on the wing, which is called a pressure disturbance. This is the force that pushes against these fast jetplanes (Marshall Brian, 18, http//travel.howstuffworks.com/airplane.html).

The race to space was between US and the U.S.S.R. On October, 4, 157, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik I. The world's first satellite about the size of a basketball, weighing 18 pounds and it took an hour and thirty-eight minutes to revolve around the Earth (Steve Garber, 00, http//www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/sputnik/). This marked the beginning of the space age and hopes for new political, technological, and scientific developments. Following the success of Sputnik, the U.S. Defense Apartment funded the development for another U.S. satellite project. Explorer I was launched on January 1, 158 containing an instrument package developed by a team from University of Iowa. The instrument helped discover the magnetic belts around the Earth. The magnetic belts were named after James van Allen, the primary investigator of the project.

The first American to orbit the earth is John Glenn. He boarded the spacecraft Mercury on February 0, 16. He circled the Earth three times. The space trip lasted 4 hours and 55 minutes. The spacecraft landed in the Atlantic Ocean. The first person to be in space was Soviet Yuri Gagarin in April of 161 (National Air and Space Museum, 1, http//www.nasm.si.edu/galleries/gal100/friend7.html).

The Apollo Command Model Columbia was the home of the three crew members that were sent to the Moon for exploration, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins. Michael Collins was designated to take photographs of the moon's surface while Armstrong and Aldrin explored the moon. After their exploration on the moon, Armstrong and Aldrin joined up with Michael Collins for the trip back home. As they entered the earth's atmosphere at 5,000 miles per hour, its exterior went up to 5,000 degrees Fahrenheit. (National Air and Space Museum, 1, http//www.nasm.si.edu/galleries/cchoice/columbia/cm_04.htm). The reason why it could take so much heat was because the Columbia was covered with a ablative heat shield, it protected the spacecraft from burning up and vaporizing. The ablative heat shield was an inexpensive and simple, which allowed the outer layers to vaporized. The spacecraft landed in the Pacific Ocean.

Pioneer 10 was launched on March 1, 17. It entered the asteroid belt on July 15 and was later found in seven months. It came back with images of Jupiter and information of its atmosphere, magnetic fields, and radiation belts. Pioneer 10 is powered by Radioisotopes Thermoelectric Generators, which can operate in deep space. It is still out there floating through space, its last ounce of energy was last detected in February 7th, 00. It has traveled 7.8 billion miles, last detection was 7.6 billion (Sawyer, 00, http//nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/tmp/17-01A.html).

In the future, solar sails has been suggested to travel to planets and other stars. This has only been to taken to small actions in exploring the frontier of space. Solar sails will allow us to travel farther and explore more. So far the Planetary Society has sent spacecrafts to all the planets in our solar system except Pluto, in hopes to discover stars that is like ours. It is expected that one day we will find a planet just like our Earth. Solar sails are the quickest, fastest way to getting around space and it picks off energy from the sun as a free source. The sails is approximately several kilometers wide, a very big structure, but it is extremely thin. Whether we are sending robots or humans, it is important that we get to our destination as quick as possible. Today aerospace technology is laser-powered sails, when sunlight grows weak, the powerful lasers will push your sails even faster. The sail connected to your spacecraft is several kilometers wide, although it is as thin as a spider web. The sails will reflect the star lights off its surface. A mission like that may possibly take a century, and if it succeeds it will open up new dreams and hopes for us. We know our planet will not last forever, but we can do what we can to make the best out of it and it is to continually enhance our technology for our own benefits (The Planetary Society, 00, http//www.planetary.org/solarsail/future_of_solarsail.html). REFERENCE

Apollo 11. [Online]. None. http//www.nasm.si.edu/galleries/cchoice/columbia/cm_04.htm [N/A]

Aviation. (000). Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia. [CD-ROM]. Microsoft Corporation

Robert Somerville. Ed. (1). Century of Flight Richmond, Virginia.

Great Achievements. [000] [Online]. National Academy of Engineering. http//www.greatachievements.org/greatachievements/ga__.html

Milestones of the First Century Flight. [001] [Online]. Aerospace Industries Association. http//www.aia-aerospace.org/pubs/milestones/milestones.cfm

Milestones of Flight. [Online]. None. http//www.si.edu/harcourt/nasm/gal100/gal100.html [N/A]

NASM. [1-00] [Online]. National Air and Space Museum. http//www.nasm.si.edu/

NASA. [Online]. None. http//www.nasa.gov/home/index.html [N/A]

Dr. Lawrence Lasher Pioneer 10. [June, 15, 15] [Online] http//spaceprojects.arc.nasa.gov/Space_Projects/Index.html

Solar Sails.[00-00] [Online] The Planetary Society. http//www.planetary.org

Somerville Robert (1). Century of Flight. Richmond Virginia.

Sputnik .[00, Feb. 1] [Online]. Nasa History Web Curator. http//www.hq.nasa.gov

To Fly is Everything. [Online]. None. http//invention.psychology.msstate.edu/air_main.shtml [N/A]

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Atlantis,myth or reality?

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Atlantis fact or fiction?Is it a myth or a made up story?

The story of Atlantis derived from famous greek philosopher Plato, it is the only

account of Atlantis and is not backed up with any sound evidence. The story of Atlantis

has also captivated the minds of individuals for thousands of years. People from allBuy custom Atlantis,myth or reality? term paper

walks of life have debated whether it really existed or whether it was just a story,

nothing more.

Fantasy is a tough sell in the twentieth century, the world has been fully discoverd and

fully mapped. Satellites have mapped and studied the earth, leaving only a space

frontier that is as yet unreachable. But standing out is a charming fantasy the modern

world has yet to verify or condemn the lost continent of Atlantis. The myths and

ledgends concerning Atlantis have come down through the centuries as one of the most

enduring ledgends of all time.

Plato claims that the sage and statesmen, Solon, in the course of his travels in Egypt,

questioned the priests and that one of them, who lived at Sais in the Nile Delta, of very

ancient traditions which related to a war waged in the distant past by athens, against the

people of Atlantis.This story is told in two of Plato's dialogues, it starts in Timaeus

and is resumed and elaborated in Critias.

Plato states that Atlantis is "a continent in the Atlantic ocean larger than Africa and

Asia Minor combined which rivaled Athens as the most advanced in the world."

According to the legend surrounding Plato's dialogues, the island of Atlantis was

violently thrown into the sea by the forces of nature, and its few survivors managed to

swim ashore and relate their story

The works of Plato opened the floodgates to endless speculation on whether the

continent described was fact or fiction. Atlantis has since been placed in Spain,

Mongolia, Palestine, Nigeria, the Netherlands, Brazil, Sweden, Greenland and

Yucatan. Every nook and cranny of the globe has been hypothesized; mountain peaks,

desert lands, the ocean floor and even the barren wasteland of Antarctica have been

mentioned in theories.

While some of these theories are compatible with Plato's works and are within relative

reason, numerous crackpot theories have been developed using the lost continent as a

basis. One of these theories, posted on the computer internet where it has access to

over fifteen million people, talks in twenty-one pages of pre-historical lands with

names like Oz and Luxor.

These world wide web pages list over two hundred separate articles of proof for the

existence of Atlantis, as in the following "Most all ancient civilizations believed in the

TITANS, the race of giant humans that inhabited Earth long ago. Different races knew

them by different names. These 7 to 1 foot humanoids were thought to be legendary

until the excavation of over a dozen skeletons 8 to 1 feet tall, around the world,

shocked archeologists. These skeletons were positively human. Some of these skeletal

remains are on Maui in lava caves near Ulupalakua and Olowalu. The Spanish

Conquistadors left diaries of wild blond-haired, blue-eyed 8 to 1 foot high men

running around in the Andes during the conquest of the Incas.

A couple were reportedly captured but died en route to Europe. If giant animals

(dinosaurs) were possible then why not giant men? And why are these goliaths

populating both Eurasia and the Americas? Only on a land bridge created by the vast

continent of Antarctica can there be a sufficient bridge for the spread of these giants."

This text, written by self-proclaimed Atlantologist Steve Omar, represents Plato's text

taken to the extreme- using his ideas as a basis for outlandish and unfounded ideas.

These unverified fantasies make a dubious complement to the other dark side of the

Atlantean fantasy hoaxes.

Atlantis has been "discovered" many times, but most notably in the fall of 11 by Dr.

Paul Schliemann. Schliemann introduced himself as the grandson of the famous

Heinrich Schliemann, the archeologist who discovered the ruins of ancient Troy in

187. His "discovery" made front page news (The New York American, October

11.) and boasted of an advanced civilization with aircraft, power-driven boats and

the like. Schliemann said his grandfather told him on his deathbed of the family's

secret the location of Atlantis. Schliemann's claims made waves, but didn't hold

water; when pressed for details, Schliemann was unresponsive and eventually

disappeared from public view. Unfortunately, the falsities concerning Atlantis

frequently overshadow the possibilities.

Albert Hermann's theory is that there was a mistranslation of what Egyption priests

told Solon in regards to the measurements, with his theory he suggests Atlantis to be

Tunisa. With little evidence to support this theory, I believe it is incorrect.

However , Dr Spiridon Marinatos, a greek archeoligist and Dr Angelos Galanopoulas

suggest that Atlantis is modern day Thera. With the mysterious collapse of the Minoan

Empire of Crete and the destruction of it's capital city of Cnosses by a volcanic

explosion which tore apart the island in 1500BC.This explosion caused tidal waves

and flooded other meditteranean islands, which may have started the ledgend of a

universal flood.Volcanic ash has been found on Thera and Crete, also the "Golden cup

with the bull", that Plato describes in his Atlantis story was found on Crete.

Pastor Jurgen Spanuth believes that Atlantis existed in the North Sea due to reports of

submerged buildings there at the mouth of Elbe River. He believes that Atlantis was the

capital of a Northern Empire Spanuth introduced a new element in underwater research

by using scuba divers, this is the first time scuba divers have been used in the search for

Atlantis. The divers found a seriesof parralel walls, the measurements and colours fit in

with Plato's account, but like Hermann's theory on a reduced scale.........

Ignatius Donnelly wrote the first extensive study of the possibility of existence in 188,

and his views have not been found to be false with twentieth century technology. In

188, Donnelly had cited Thera as an example of the land changes of islands in the

claim that "a recent examination of these islands shows that the whole mass of Santorin

has sunk, since it's projection from the sea,over 100 feet"

Donnelly believed in Atlantis, but believed it to be worldly; his reasons for Atlantis's

existence are unable to be proven, but make sense. Some examples -There is nothing

improbable in Plato's narrative; it describes rich, cultured and educated people but

doesn't mention things of fantasy like giants, hobgoblins etc. Plato speaks of hot and

cold springs in the center of Atlantis, a feature common to islands with volcanic

activity. Chances are Plato didn't know this.

Responding partly to Donnelley's theories and partly to the urge to discover, some

0th century archeologists have used twentieth century technology to look for Atlantis.

But many have dismissed Atlantis as glorified myths of volcanic eruptions in the island

of Thera in 1450 b.c. The eruption may have destroyed that island and caused a small

earthquake and tsunamis that ruined the civilization of Crete, but didn't sink a

continent. Therefore, none of Donnelley's theories can be proved without the actual

discovery of the continent.

Atlantis did exist many years ago in the Atlantic, however not in the form of what most

people would assume. Around the 10th Century BC, water levels were about 450-500

feet lower than they are today, therefore the landmass of islands in the Atlantic were

much larger, some of the islands were once joined and some still are , deep under the

ocean.

The rise of the water level was due to the melting of three glaciers, which were also

accompanied by rains and volcanic eruptions. This is where the confusion comes in

with the dissapearing and sunken islands, which in fact were just drowned.

This can be proven with the scientific information. Geoligists and Oceanographers will

agree as the rising rate of the ocean can be deciphered with radio carbon dating of

materials taken from the sea. Therefore, looking at the water levels and land masses of

the time we can see that they fit with Plato's description of Atlantis' whereabouts.

It appears that Marinatos and Galanopoulas' theory of thera is the most realistic.

This theory is the closest to Plato's account in terms of time and geography, and it is

based in fact.The Minoan Civilization was a great and peaceful culture based on the

island of Crete, which reigned as long ago as 00 B.C. The island of Thera was home

to a volcano. In 1470 B.C., it erupted with a enormous force, obliterating everything

on Santorinis surface. The resulting earthquakes and tsunamis devastated the rest of

the Minoan Civilization, whose remnants were easily conquered by Greek forces.

Santorini was the real Atlantis. Some have argued against this idea, noting

Plato specified that Atlantis sank 10,000 years ago, but the Minoan disaster had taken

place only 1,000 years earlier. Still, i believe that translation errors over the centuries

altered what Plato really wrote, or maybe he was intentionally blurring the historical

facts to suit his purposes. And there exists yet another strong possibility, that Plato

entirely made Atlantis up himself.

I believe Atlantis existed, however with the lack of written and archeological evidence,

I dont believe it contained advance technology, or was a great empire. If this was true

and there was such an advanced continent then it is more than likely there would be

other written and archeological evidence from neighboring countries, or trade partners

etc describing this extremely unique and advanced continent. Why only the one

account of Atlantis?

It is this one key factor that makes me believe that Plato's account of Atlantis is an I

exaggeration of the historical destruction of Thera and the Minoan empire, therefore it

did exist just not in the form of what Plato would like us to think, and it is found in the

Aegean.

Regardless, his story of the sunken continent went on to captivate the generations that

followed. Other Greek thinkers, disputed the existence of Atlantis, while Herodotus

wrote of it as historical fact. Atlantis became entrenched in folklore all around the

world, charted on ocean maps and sought by explorers.

The legend of Atlantis is only a huge collection of theories and guesses, but theories

and guesses also led to the discovery of the lost Roman cities of Pompeii and

Herculaneum, discovered after being buried and preserved by the volcanic ash of

nearby Mt. Vesuvius. Because of this, the mystery of Atlantis's existence will tantalize

the world until the continent is either proven or disproven.

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Biological warfare

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Biological warfare is the use of microorganisms and toxic biological products to cause death or injury to plants and animals, including humans. It is also called germ warfare. Recenty it has become a major issue around the world and in the media because of technological advancements and the threat of terrorism.

Time Frame

Biological warfare is thought to be a restively new threat, but one of the earliest documented attack was in the fourteenth century when the Genoese sent rats and fleas to attacking Tartar soldiers who contracted the plague. A lot of the earliest attacks using biological warfare were using victims of the plague and catapulting them at enemies or giving them plague infested objects or stores. An early example of this is when the English gave the native americans smallpox infested blankets during the French and Indian war. Many of the native americans died because they had never been exposed to the disease.

It is only in the twentieth century that biological warfare has become a major threat worldwide because of new technology and the creation of weapons of mass destruction.

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Cause and Effect

Biological warfare is quite broad for it involves many different chemicals and diseases. The cause of many of these is hygine. Bombs have now been developed that spread biological weapons over a large amount of space. Other ways of spreading biological weapons is through spraying them into the air with aerosol.

AGENT DOWNWIND REACH (km) DEAD INCAPACITATED

Rift Valley Fever 1 400 5,000

Tick-borne encephalitis 1 500 5,000

Typhus 5 1,000 85,000

Brucellosis 10 500 100,000

Q-fever 0 150 15,000

Tularemia 0 0,000 15,000

Anthrax 0 5,000 15,000

But over the years other, more covert means of spreading these diseases have some up. For example, the recent scare around the world about anthrax in letters. Because it would only take a very small amount of Anthrax to kill or incapacitate someone. This is really why biological warfare is so different from the many other types of warfare, because of it's availability and how easy it is to use. Often only one plane or one person is needed to scatter the spores or vapore etc… for it to have major and long lasting damage. This also makes it a popular choice of many terrorist and gurilla fighters because it is easy to conceal.

The effects of Biological warfare can be much more widespread than tha of conventional warfare. Because the disease or virus can spread so quickly and widely it can spread hundreds of kilometres from where it was originally set off. Of course, this is only some biological weapons, there are many types that are all very different. Some of these have an incubation period when the actual agent is released after it had been spread or exposed. Some incubation periods can last years. This is another reason why it is such an effective weapon. Not only will most stay in the area's air and soil for up to decades after, but some may not be released for months or years.

Economic Considerations

Firstly, compared to other forms of warfare, biological warfare is quite cheap. For example; nuclear armaments- $800, chemical agents-$600, conventional armaments-$000 as compared to the low cost of biological weapons- $1, to produce 50% casualties per square kilometres. The low cost makes it a popular option of non-government terrorist organisations.

Secondly, biological warfare, when used, affects many members of the community. This may effect the means of production if many workers are sick. Along with this, reasourses may be effected. Anthrax for example, can leave massive quantities of dangerous spores in the ground for up to 00 years if animals that die of it are not burned. Grain stores can be contaminated by different biological weapons. During history this tactic had been employed by many armies. They would destroy what resources they could not use and then move on. In the third Persian war, the Persians contaminated the greeks wells with what is now thought to be a BACTERIAL AGENT called Francisella tularensis. They put ticks into the wells and much of the population was effected even after the Persians had left.

Scientific Advances in Biological Warfare

Even though Biological warfare has been used for centuries, only recently have there been scientific advances that make their use so widely possibly. Most noticeably, the great advances in microbiology and geanology. Advances in these fields have made it possible firstly, for the agents used to be very small and can be carried on the carrier's person. Secondly, genology had developed new breeds and more potent agents.

Political Issues

In 17 the U.S, Australia and manu other countries signed a UN Biological Weapons Convention treaty against germ, or biological, warfare. The treaty, which 14 nations have ratified, prohibits development, production and possession of biological weapons. But the treaty has lacked means of verifying compliance. US support for the idea is vital to give it real meaning. Though the US signed the treaty they have not strictly abided by the agreed apon policy. Now, the UN has added to this policy and now want to ban biological weapons. The US has the biggest stores of biological weapons in the world and the greatest capacity to use them. This is why it is so important for the US to sign the treaty out of the many countries that plan to or have. Australia is calling on the US to back the new treaty and ignore a review by the Bush administration that disagrees with the treaty.

Reasons the US have been giving include; that the treaty will not be effective, it's inspection provisions could be used to steal US secrets, it threatens commercial intrests in the US and jeopardize national security. US rejection of the protocol is also believed to have been heavily influenced by the pharmaceuticals industry, which controls 40% of the global market. They argued that international inspections would expose them to commercial piracy. Australia is at the head of the countries supporting this new protocol and has been pushing for it for six years.

This gives fresh evidense of the Bush administration's retreat from global co operation. In the last few years they have refused to sign the Kyoto protocol against greenhouse gas emissions and are opposing a new UN treaty to control small arms and have threatened to abandon the anti-ballistic missile treaty.

Controvercy

After September Eleventh 001 there was a big Anthrax scare in America. Many people would not open their mail for fear of finding white powder inside. Letters and parcels with Anthrax inside were sent to many organistions. Though many people believe this was the work of a middle-eastern terrorist group, some people think it is really American scientists who released the virus into the community. It is thought by some to be an experiment by the American government and scientists to see what the reaction and death rate would be of people exposed to the agent. The Unites States government issued a press release saying that they were in mo way involved with the exposure of the agent, but many people still believe this theory.

New found explanation for gulf war syndrome

The illness know as gulf war syndrome appears to have been caused by a vaccine that the soldiers were given. Research and tests have been done on many soldiers who participated in the Gulf War, and results point to an illegal vaccine they were given for biological weapons.

The common factor with the 75,000 US and British soldiers seems to be a substance called squalene which was allegedly injected into the soldiers who were to go into the Gulf. The deciding factor pointing to this theory is the fact that many men who did not go to the gulf but were vaccinated, have this illness.

The vaccine was for protection against biological warfare, but was not legalised because of potential side effects.

Mouse Contraceptive research produces killer Virus.

In 001 there was a large controvercy about Australia's accidental production of a smallpox-type killer virus that wipes out it's victims immune system. The virus was created during attempts to make a contraceptive for mice. It does not affect humans, but provides a blue-print for a similar virus that would.

This is new evidence that information and research published in acedmic journals and the like could be used by illegal groups to produce biological weapons.

The researches made this potential killer by inserting a gene that creates large amounts of the naturally occurring interleukin (il-4) into a mousepox virus. The aim was to make he animals infertile, but instead they created a virus that suppresses the immune system which combats infection and killed all the test animals in nine days.

Attempts to vaccinate the mice have failed, giving rise to fear that immunistation would be of little use if a human version of the virus was developed.

Defence or Offence?

It is said my many that one problem with the current treaty is that countries may develop biological weapons as long as they are for defence purposes. Many say that it is far too easy for countries to say they are developing them for defensive reasons, but really be developing offensive weapons. The treaty bars nations from developing, aquiring or stockpiling biological weapons to be used for "hostile purposes or in armed combat". It permits experiments on microbes, but as long as quantities are small and the purpose is defensive. It allows such experiments as long as the aim is "protective". Former US senior government lawyer Mary Elizabeth Hoinkes said the treaty was written to prevent nations from Developing Weapons. She insists that it was intended to bar even initial research on munitions that spread disease.

Biological warfare is not only a threat in war zones, but in many countries not effected by war worldwide. It is my view that the treaty stopping countries developing biological weapons should be signed and implemented for the sake of global safety .

Religion, Science, Medicine and Warfare. Illustrated history Encyclopedia. Published by Southwater in 000.

Encarta® World English Dictionary 1 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Developed for Microsoft by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

http//www.telemedicine.org/BioWar/biologic.htm

http//www.gulfwarvets.com/biowar.htm

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The Bad Effects of Rock Music

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Music has always been a good source to open up our hearts and bring out the deepest feelings we hide, we listen to music because we want to feel better, forget our problems, but isn't at that point that another problem arises? Are people listening to good music? Rock music, frequently listened by many, produces damaging effects. This music produces at least one among several damages to the body, and to develop my opinion, so to make you see the effects, I gathered some information about the great bad effects it produces.

To begin, we must first consider some music elements, which are for example, harmony, timbre, rhythm, and tempo. Music without a good harmony is music that will make us feel bad. There is consonant harmony, which can be bright or dark, cheerful or melancholy, lyrical or disconnected, upbeat or slow. We also have dissonant harmony, which has sometimes similar effects to consonant harmony, but this type of music is more negative; this music is usually irritating, agitating, or has one of any number of negative effects. In all music there is timbre. Timbre is what allows us recognize if the music is pleasant or not to listen, what kind of music is harsh, and which one is clear. The clear voice of a singer for example, is more pleasant to listen to, while a harsh one is agitating; it sets the listener on edge. Music without rhythm and tempo is like not having a clock to measure our time and go crazy. Rhythm and tempo are not always used harmonically, but if so, they are then sympathetic to the body. We must be careful with tempo whether we produce music or listen to it; it should be used in a way that correspond the normal heart rate (60 to 10 beats per minute). Most music are between seventy and eighty beats per minute (Torres and Torres). Disharmonic rhythm and tempo are destructive to the body. Disharmonic tempo is outside the range of sixty to one hundred and twenty beats per minute, and also it includes frequent syncopation (as does almost all current popular music, and a lot of twentieth century art [sometimes called classical music]). Also, monotonous rhythm (the same rhythm repeated many times is disharmonic), (Scott Severance). In conclusion, music elements play a vital role.

As I said, rock music is damaging to the body. Why I say this? Well this music is bad music because it is disharmonic and addictive. To illustrate, I must state the example of an interview done to Schram in 1, an enthusiastic popular music listener. In his interview he said that if he goes too long without his preferred music, he feels depressed. In the same document, I read that numerous others reported the same phenomenon. However, they deny being negatively affected. The "withdrawal" symptoms, such as depression, are probably due largely to the heightened state of arousal caused by rhythm and tempo of disharmonic music. When some people have changed from disharmonic to harmonic, they report feeling better overall after initial withdrawal symptoms (Scott Severance, 1).

Heavy metal is one kind of disharmonic music we know already, but; can disharmonic music cause brain damage? Yes, it can. In a study (G.M Schreckenberg and H.H. Bird, 18), 6 mice were divided in three groups, each group listening to a different condition. One group listened to harmonic sound, another group listened to disharmonic, and the other one was exposed to a quiet environment. The researchers found out that disharmonic sound exposure can cause brain damage (excess branching of neuronal dendrites, and significant increases in messenger ribonucleic acid), and behavior degradation (hyperactivity, aggression, lethargy and inactiveness). In all, disharmonic music like heavy metal is damaging to the brain. Help with essay on The Bad Effects of Rock Music

Heavy metal is the music that has ever been criticized the most. This music was born in the late nineteen eighties, and its controversial lyrics and harsh sound have made it a target of much blame for psychological and behavioral problems, especially in teenagers. Some say that music helps them deal with the everyday problems. We all know that lately there have been shootings at some schools in the U.S, in which the protagonists of all have been teenagers. These teenagers, accused of aggression have been found to be fans of this controversial music (Shalleen L. Coss). The Greek Philosopher Plato once wrote, "A change to a new type of music is something to beware of as a hazard to all of our fortunes, for the modes of music are never disturbed without upsetting of the most fundamental political and social conventions" (p.). In conclusion, anytime we develop a new music, or reshape an old one, we are at the risk of changing our minds.

Music and its effects on mood are experienced everyday by millions of people. Aggressions are present in those with behavior disorders, and these individual amplify these aggressions by getting exposed to rock music. Also, individual free of aggression feelings beforehand may feel aggression after listening to the music or examining the song's lyrics. In all, lyrics in rock music play a damaging part too.

Before concluding, it is important to notice that not all kind of music is damaging and that if we change styles, we could benefit ourselves. Instead of listening to rock, or any other kind of disharmonic music, which we know already is bad; we could listen to music from Bach, Mozart, and even Yanni. Music from these composers are very harmonic and will not influence the body and mind in any negative way, on the contrary, they will enhance reasoning and increase the IQ, as explained in an article by Kristian David Olson. Choosing the type of music we listen is essential.

In conclusion, as stated above, there is evidence that music posses a great power over the mind, thus, it is our choice to be touched by the negative effects of it or the positive ones, it is our choice to develop a positive mind or a negative one. Napoleon understood the music's great power. He said, "Give me control over he who shapes the music of a nation, and I care not who makes the laws."

Please note that this sample paper on The Bad Effects of Rock Music is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The Bad Effects of Rock Music, we are here to assist you. Your cheap college papers on The Bad Effects of Rock Music will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Why Get Married?

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Why get married? A very good question, todays current culture doesnt frown on common law arrangements any more, so that wasnt a factor. Some couples even have children out of wedlock and in certain circles that isnt considered scandalous any more either. First, it will help to know what marriage is. Marriage is a commitment. It is an allegiance bonding two into one flesh; not depend on whether you have good times or bad times together. One is still married through sickness or health, the commitment remains. No matter what happens through the years, two are married 'until death do you part.'

First there are the symbolic reasons for two to get married, humans are affected by symbolism and ritual. Otherwise, how could religious or artistic performances engender an emotional response? So, getting married in front of our friends and family is a symbolic statement for many people, and that it shows commitment of two people for the long term; that a couple are no longer just dating any more; it is a symbol of "eternal" commitment. That two are intending to spend the rest of their lives together. Theres no greater compliment that a person can give you, no greater gift, than giving you the rest of their lives.

Also, what if a couple what to have children together? It would be comfortable with having them outside of wedlock. Sure, some of that is due to social conditioning and we realize that, but there were also practical considerations. Why should someone have to bear children without being willing to openly express my commitment to a long term arrangement with her? Then there are the children themselves, shouldnt they have as secure a family structure as possible? Sure, a common law or single parent household can work, but a loving married couple as the parents of children works best. Are these emotional reasons? Yes, of course, look at what is being talked about here! Marriage can be and should be a very emotional event, and commitment.

Christian culture has ideas about why we should or should not get married. These ideas are said to be wise, and it is believed that they are, but it that some of them are not balanced by the explicit biblical perspective on marriage. But wisdom should not be ignored, because it is often founded in a concern to protect us from our fleshy, impatient desires. First, most Christian's say that being alone is not a good reason to get married. It is better to suck it up, rely on God and deal with it. But consider that the Bible's first marriage, and indeed when God himself institutes marriage, it is to cure loneliness.

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The LORD God said, It is not good for the man to be alone. I will make a helper suitable for him. Now the LORD God had formed out of the ground all the beasts of the field and all the birds of the air. He brought them to the man to see what he would name them; and whatever the man called each living creature, that was its name. So the man gave names to all the livestock, the birds of the air and all the beasts of the field. But for Adam no suitable helper was found. So the LORD God caused the man to fall into a deep sleep; and while he was sleeping, he took one of the mans ribs and closed up the place with flesh. Then the LORD God made a woman from the rib he had taken out of the man, and he brought her to the man. The man said, This is now bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called woman, for she was taken out of man. For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and they will become one flesh. The man and his wife were both naked, and they felt no shame.

(Gen. 18-5 NIV).

Second, most Christian's said it is not good to marry because you can't control your sexual passion. It is hesitant to say than it is, except that it comes from God's Word, but Paul says, "Since there is so much immorality, each man should have, his own wife, and each woman her own husband" (1 Cor. 7). But if two cannot control themselves they should marry, for it is better to marry than to burn with passion.

This second example goes against the common idea that God has picked out one specific person for each Christian and we need to wait on God, until God brings him or her along, and not take initiative to find the person. It puts the decision to marry in a much more mundane light, not a spiritual light. It leaves the decision up to the Christian in absence of a direct command from God, of course. Not saying that we should marry because were desperate or marry solely for sex. Motivation and patience do play an important role. My purpose is merely to point out a discrepancy between modern Christian culture and the biblical perspective. Perhaps we should not degrade the desire for companionship, or even sex, as much as we have.

As well, Women want to get married. In a recent government survey showed that single women in their 0s are least likely to think that marrying and having children is better than staying single. According to seven matchmaking agencies and seven singles interviewed, women in their 0s do want to get hitched. It showed that about 80 per cent of single women in their 0s thought marrying were better than staying single, but the proportion dropped to 48 per cent for those in their 0s. And, while 88 per cent of single women in there 0s feel that married couples should have children, and only half of the woman in their 0s thought the same.

One last consideration was legal. People may want to have joint expenses, possessions and commitments, eventually get a house of our own, instead of renting an apartment, and we felt that being a legally bound couple would make this easier and simpler to manage. It is know that married couples have better credit that single people. Example, credit card companies will give a greater limit to those that are married. Also, legally married couples often have more privileges than common law couples. For instance, some hospitals will let spouses follow along in certain situations during certain types of surgery, visiting after hours, etc; that they may not always grant to just couples.

Its true, though, that the percentage of Americans who arent married has been increasing since about 160, but the rate of single-hood is by no means unprecedented. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, a higher percentage of women are unmarried, 48%, than men, 44%. Most unmarried people would like to be married, but havent found the right person yet, or know that the time isnt right. Many others are happily single, or in long-term unmarried relationships. People are delaying marriage more, but the change isnt as dramatic as most people think. The average age at marriage dropped artificially low in the 150s and 160s men were marrying at and women at 0. In 18, it was only slightly higher, 7 for men and 5 for women.

Children is another thing, one in three babies is born to unmarried parents today. But these arent necessarily single mothers, which is how theyre often discussed. Forty percent of these unmarried births are to cohabiting unmarried couple's two-parent households who are single only in the legal sense.

Why has unmarried by choice become an increasingly attractive lifestyle option? Partly its just because women no longer need husbands to support them, and men no longer need wives to cook and clean. Since being married is no longer required for survival, its become optional. People today have high standards when it comes to marriage! We may be less likely to settle for an unsatisfying relationship, and more likely to leave a marriage that isnt working. Today there are lots of reasons people in committed relationships dont get married. Some women dont want to be wives, and would rather be partners. Some have had horrible experiences with divorce and dont want to risk that again. Some people would lose significant financial benefits if they married, like senior citizens who can lose a pension from a deceased spouse. Commitment and marriage often go together, but not always. Of course, there are married couples who arent very committed, and whose unions dont last long. And there are also unmarried partners whose relationships last many decades, who are as committed as the most loving married pair.

We need to learn to understand marriage and commitment as existing separately from each other, sometimes going together, sometimes not. But marriage is a necessity for most people, even though, marriage is not for everyone. The Bible, in the book of Genesis, makes it clear that humans where made for companionship. Marriage is a symbolic form of companionship, but there are other forms of it as well. Even though some people want to live a single live, not having to commit his life to another, but it should be an idea that every one ought to give thought. No one should just ran and jump into marriage. Marriage is a long term commitment. Albeit, people not think it marriage is a long term vow; it seems like a 'joke' to them. Fear of a bad relation and divorce are strong deterrents for marriage today, but if people take more time in choosing a mate there will not be as high of a divorce rate. For the people that can't, even then, seem to be able to find a proper mate to marry, then a single life may be optimal. But marriage is an idea that everyone should give thought and to put effort towards.

So, why get married? There are many reasons, as listed above. Marriage is symbolic sign of commitment, and love for one another. It is the best way to show ultimate love for a special other. Schnarch, David. Passionate Marriage Love, Sex, and Intimacy in Emotionally

Committed Relationships. New York Henry Holt, May 18

"He includes fascinating and inspiring examples from his own marriage. he dares to present it as a work in progress rather than a fait accompli, which enhances, not undermines, his marriage. While giving the reason why he was right in marrying his wife."

Gottman, John M. and Silver, Nan. Why Marriages Succeed or Fail And How You

Can Make Yours Last. New York Fireside, June 15

"This book is based on scientific studies of how couples actually fight rather than on any generalized theory of categorizing types. By reading his analysis I was able to see how dysfunctional interactions contributed to the breakup of my marriage and I was able to retrain myself in communication methods. This new, more aware way of communicating has worked wonders in my new relationship."

Perkel, Marc. Dont Get Married!. Monday, December nd, 00

http//www.perkel.com/pbl/married/

"A man's Story of a marriage gone bad. He tell what when wrong, and why. Also giving his strong point of view on why Marriage is a 'con'."

Lariscy, Randy. Why Should Anyone Get Married?. Copyright 1, Monday,

December 0, 00.

http//wordtruth.com/gen_b.htm

"This site give strong Biblical reasons why it is good for a man and woman to get married. The author gives many Biblical refinances as well as personal opinion on why man should get married to a woman."

WHAT MAKES A MAN MARRY?. March 0, 1. Woman's Own. Monday,

December 0, 00.

http//www.womansown.com/backissues/april/marry.htm

"Random male and female writers give there ideas on why men want to join in wedlock with a woman. The site hits on topics of love, compaction, and family."

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Highalnd clearances

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In this essay I will evaluate the opinion that the highland clearances of the nineteenth century were the best solution for the economy but a disaster for the inhabitants of the highlands. As the title suggests there was and still is a dual point of view to this question. One has to consider the subtenants and cottars who were the subject of the clearances and on the other hand Britain's contemporary economy and politics. To tackle this question I will first give a short overview over the situation of the Highlands until ca. 1800.

Up ti the end of the 18-century the highland society was based on clanship with hierarchical structure. The chief of the clan had several tacksmen who formed the clan's army and let the land to subtenants who themselves let it to cottars. It was not a system of land letting that was based on economic relations but on kinship and mutual respect and trust.

Apart from the Highlands' agriculture the people lived from seasonal migration to the lowlands to help with the harvest or fishing. They also exported their black cattle. From the money they bought cereals. Thus there was an early specialisation in industry.

Since 1700 the chiefs were involved in southern politics. They slowly abandoned the traditional clanship. Since 170 they raised the rents of their peasants to be able to lead a life similar to that of the Lowlands. They gave land not because of kinship anymore but according to the highest rent. In 170 Sir Alexander Mac Donald of Sleat and Norman MacLeod of Dunvegan sold some of their clansmen into slavery, which can be seen as the very beginning of the clearances.

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Scottish lowlanders and the English government always wanted to pacify the Highlands. They felt threatened by the Jacobites. After Culloden they forbade Highland arms and tradition.

Finally the chiefs that had turned into landlords found possibilities to involve in politics and to increase their personal wealth kelp, sheep and deer. To progress with that profound changes were made.

All together the Highlands were much less developed than the rest of Britain at that time. It remained a quite primitive society with poor communication, low capital and ancient traditions. Apart from the early but stagnating specialisation in cattle the Highlands did not participate in Britain's economy. They bought cereals from the cash they got for the cattle but otherwise lived on home industry and self-sufficient farming. Thus the regional interest of the Highland did not comport with the rest of the nation.

As seen above the landlords wanted to improve their land from an early age. Their common opinion was that the peasants were indolent and lazy and therefore opponent to improvements. "The attachment of the wretched creatures in question was a habit; the habit of indolence and inexperience, the attachment of an animal little differing in feelings from his own horned animals." For the landlords the improvement consisted in abolishing the small uneconomic fields of the cottars. They wanted to create large sheep farms inhabited by new sheep breeds from England and a few shepherds to attend them. Besides sheep farming the Highlands offered another resource. The soap and glass factories in England needed huge amounts of kelp, an alkali rich product won from seaweed. Therefore the landlords wanted the peasants to clear their fields and to settle along the coast to harvest the seaweed, while sheep were grazing on their former land. As kelping was labour intensive the landlords were afraid of a loss of population through emigration. Thus the clearances in the beginning of the 1-century were a shifting of population within the land rather than an eviction from the land. Fishing was attempted but failed due to inexperience and too primitive gear.

The supposed effect on society was first of all a relief of congestion on the Highland farms, partly a real overcrowding and partly a population only too big for sheep farming. Secondly the landlords with their adoption of lowland habits wanted to "civilise" the peasants. They should get used to regular work in one sector like kelping that they could later work in the factories of the lowlands. Thus they were given only a tiny patch of land (which was later even more reduced) and a tiny hut, a croft. The crofters had to work in the kelping industry because otherwise they were not able to pay for rents and supplementary food. With the population concentrated in one area it was also easier to introduce law, order and lowland education. It was assumed that the Highlanders would move out of their free will to areas were there was the most capital like the fishing industry and the new factories and towns. Although these theories sounded not too inhuman they did not apply to the crofters. When the kelp industry ceased even more sheep were brought into the Highlands. After the sheep had become uneconomical the landlords converted sheep walks into deer forests for the sporting upper class. According to the landlords' theory the crofters should have moved further and further to gain more capital but, deeply rooted on their land, they did not. They rather accepted poverty and overcrowding and hoped for redistribution of land than to leave. Thus the landlords increasingly pushed the crofters out of the estates, especially when the kelping industry ceased. Their new philosophy was expressed by J. MacCulloch "The longer a change is protracted, the more severe it will be, because great numbers will be added to great poverty."

The opinion of the crofters looked somewhat different. For them the most obvious thing was that their society and traditions were violated. Kinship was not important anymore, the tacksmen were abolished, which created a social vacuum between landlords and crofters. J. Hunter describes "The institutional forms of a society with a continuous history of at least 1000 years were, it is true, destroyed simply by passing and enforcing laws that abolished them." As the crofters' land became smaller and smaller seasonal migration became increasingly important to feed the families and to pay the rent for the croft. Whole families moved to the lowlands in summer and so virtually abandoned their land. However, despite the social changes that took place the Highlanders were not willing to leave their land and homes for good. Their ancient traditions of peasantry made them to oppose to the clearances and let them wait for redistribution of land. They regarded it as an enormous injustice that their land was taken away and given to sheep and foreigners. As the crofters did not benefit from the money their landlords made with kelping and sheep farming they did not regard the changes as an improvement.

The moving to a croft went together with a loss of status especially for those families that became almost landless. A moral decline was observed after the crofters were not able to improve their condition or even pay their rents despite hard work.

If one considers that the crofters were deprived of their securing traditions, their social status and were never organized into unions it is easier to understand why they did not protest earlier or became as violent as their Irish counterpart. Deeply rooted in clanship the crofters were used to follow their landlords and tacksmen. So they could be removed to the coast or convinced by the tacksmen to follow them to America without major protest. Few in waves occurring protests delayed the clearances but could not prevent them. The most famous protests were the Braes Strike in 1881 and the Sutherland Clearances. Only after the Crofters Wars in the 1880s the public became aware. Later rent strikes like in Ireland followed with the aim of land redistribution.

However, the most common form of protest was emigration. Its numbers were a clear measure of the desperate situation of the people.

As we can see there was the crowd of poor or even starving crofters which felt unjustly treated on one hand, and on the other hand there were the landlords who wanted to participate in the national economy with all its advantages. Both had in common an insatiable land hunger. The reactions of the two groups were naturally different crofters emigrated, landlords cleared. For both there were push and pull reasons. Surely the crofters were urged to emigrate by the landlords, raised rents, sunken cattle prices and the famines of the 180s and 1840s. Yet there was encouragement to emigrate by letters from relatives who had already gone to North America. The promise of very good land especially in Carolina and the promise of free profession of the catholic faith also helped. Added was that the population became more mobile once they had left their ancient home and moved to the coast. Pull reasons for the landlords were wealth, political influence and a southern lifestyle. Yet they were pushed by the national economy and competition and the fear of loosing their family heritage.

Proof that emigration was not due to landlords' fault was Lewis, where James Matheson spent a fortune on the improvement of the condition of his tenants. Overpopulation was not the consequence of sheep farming but the failure of kelping and the growth of the population. While in 1844 Matheson believed that emigration was not necessary he had changed his mind in 1850. He had to remove 0% of the population. He acted as friendly as before he cancelled rents, paid the passage and provided food and clothing. Yet even in this case of very liberal terms of emigration there was some pressure put on the people. Matheson told his agents that he would have forced them to leave if they had not accepted his help.

There were suggested solutions for the economic and social problem. David Stewart of Garth was the first writer who blamed the clearances for all problems of the Highlands. He was not entirely against sheep farming but wanted to integrate it into the old lifestyle in a slow change. He was concerned about the social benefit of the Highlanders. Unfortunately his ideas were too idealistic. He put them into practise on his own estate but saw himself forced to clear the land in 180. His ideas in extreme would have dispossessed the landlords and created an independent peasant state next to Britain. 4 Adam Smith offered capitalist ideas. He proposed regional specialisation and assumed that labour and capital would move to the most advantageous places. It was not his fault that this movement did not happen but the fault of Highland tradition and psychology.

As the example of Garth and others shows a major problem of the Highlands was overcrowding. This was increased by the introduction of the potato and kelping. Crofters on the coast lived on potatoes, shellfish and milk, which was a well balanced diet. The landlords were first not aware of this development. Later they tried to mitigate overcrowding by further clearances. The population grew so fast that it probably would not have managed to sustain itself even if the old system had remained. A growth of population was observed in the rest of Europe as well. The difference to the Highlands was the new labour intensive factories and the better natural resources elsewhere in Europe. The conditions in the Highlands could have been improved by giving the crofters as much land as to sustain by its crops. That would have meant to clear some more families, which would not have mattered regarding the anyway vast number of emigrants.

There was some (late) state intervention. The Napier Commission, the Passenger Vessel Act of 1884, emigration help and the Crofters Holdings Act and its successors improved the situation. State help could have been increased but that would not have comported with the Victorian laissez-faire politics. Another attempt would have been to move away from landlordism and create some form of co-operative between all Highlanders.

It is a paradox that the landlords' wish for an improved economy decreased the traditional specialised export of cattle and labour force (seasonal migration). The peasants had long been used to such an economic exchange with the lowlands. Although it did not bring as much wealth as kelp, sheep or deer it was important because the Highlanders needed the cash to buy supplementary food. Another paradox was the introduction of potatoes. First it helped to feed the growing population to an extend that was impossible with cereals because the potato was much better adapted to the condition of the Highland soil. Later it caused the worst famines because people relied so much on it that they hardly had any other food when the potato harvest failed due to blight.

All agrarian changes were either short sighted or unlucky. The war dependent need of goods, overgrazing and bad fishing gear could have been considered before. The chemical production of alkali, and wool and mutton from Australia (mostly sold by evicted crofters) were bad luck. Another problem was that the changes happened to fast. What had taken 00 years in the rest of Britain happened within a few decades in the Highlands. It was extremely difficult to take up a totally new lifestyle in such a short time. Even for the landlords it was too fast. Some of them went bust because they spent their new money in London or Edinburgh.

Altogether one can say that the clearances were necessary if the Highlands were to remain an economical and political part of Britain. If the Highlands had become an autonomic region the traditional life could have gone on until the Highlanders themselves had found changes necessary. Then the competition between Highland lords and the upper and emerging middle class of England would not have become so important. Yet the clearances were and are indefensible, even if one considers the contemporary laissez-faire politics. Contemporaries were shocked by the poverty and wretchedness of the crofters and the conditions of some emigration ships. The crofters had to carry all the disadvantages that arouse from the economic improvement of the whole of Britain. The capital from the economic changes was divided unequally. That in itself was unfair. And although the crofters' conditions have slowly improved since the Crofters Holdings Act in 1886 crofters today belong still to the poorest and less advantageous part of the British population.

Bibliography

Gray, M. The Highland Economy 1750-1850, Oliver and Boyd Edinburgh and London 157

Hunter, J., The Making of the Crofting Community, John Donald Publishers Ltd Edinburgh 176

MacAskill,J., We have Won the Land, Acair Ltd Stornoway 1

Richards, E., A History of the Highland Clearances, volume , Croom Helm Ltd London 185

www.norcol.ac.uk

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