The Initial Physical Evidence as it relates to the Spirit-Baptism

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It is in Acts chapter 11-7 that one can clearly derive and make a case that one of the initial signs of Spirit baptism is the fact that they spoke in tongues. In this chapter, Luke records Paul laying hands on some disciples. Paul understands that receiving the Holy Spirit is different than salvation and water baptism and yet asserts that it is certainly possible to know whether or not a person has, in fact, received the Holy Spirit.

Just as the interpretation of Acts 11-7 are many, so there are various theologies and doctrines concerning the baptism in the Spirit, and tongues as the initial evidence happens to be one with much controversy surrounding it.

What are tongues? In early manuscripts we find the word 'glossolalia,' the act of speaking in a language either unknown to the speaker or incomprehensible (in both Old Testament and New Testament the word 'tongue' sometimes refers to a language, frequently an alien or incomprehensible language).

The Biblical basis of tongues is really quite simple and the book of Acts is its foundation stone. If the book of Acts were excluded from the discussion there would be no other source of information since the only other passage in the New Testament that discusses tongues at any length is 1 Corinthians 1 thru 14 which clearly teaches all do not speak in tongues (1 Cor.10). Surely, if our non-Pentecostal friends dare to base doctrine on the silence of the Word, we can safely base doctrine on the express statement of the Word. However, let us not forget that Paul's reference to tongues indicates that the phenomenon is familiar to his original readers. Also, Paul examines tongues as one of many differing spiritual gifts that are given freely by the Spirit after one has been baptized by the Spirit into the body of Christ (1 Cor. 11). The Gospels add no support since the Spirit baptism is something that is prophesied but not realized until the time period discussed in Acts (Mt. 11, Acts 1-4). Mark 1617 mentions tongues in a group of other signs marking the messianic era, Isaiah predicted that the sick would be healed and that mute tongues would speak (Is 55�6), and that God's people would be witnesses for him (Is 410). The powers here attributed to believers are the sort that characterize many of the Old Testament prophets. No purpose is assigned to this gift and therefore no additional insight may be gained.Order custom research paper on The Initial Physical Evidence as it relates to the Spirit-Baptism

The material, from which this doctrine is developed, then, is to be found exclusively in Acts. As one studies the events found in Acts, it is important that one separates the accidentals from the essentials. The Spirit came, and the people heard the sound of rushing wind, and saw tongues of fire. The Spirit baptized and filled the believers, and then spoke as they praised God in various languages

In particular there are four cases that call for examination. They are significant not because they are the only times people are said to be filled with the Spirit, or somehow moved upon by the Spirit, in the book of Acts. They are, however, the only passages that give any kind of description of the experience itself as it is initially (for the first time) received by the people mentioned.

For example, Acts 4 is the initial filling of the Spirit in the case of the original Apostles and disciples. Acts 41 also mentioned the disciples being filled with the Spirit but it is assumed that this is a second experience by the disciples and did not require the presence of tongues. Therefore, it must be regarded as an unfounded affirmation.

Acts records the initial outpouring of the Spirit on the 10 gathered in the Upper Room. Of course, Acts 4 states that they spoke with other tongues as the Spirit gave them utterance after they were filled with the Spirit. It was this that captured the attention of the multitude that had gathered.

Acts 8 records the preaching of Philip in a city of Samaria. Though the people believed Philips message and were even baptized with water, they had not yet received the Holy Spirit. The Apostles then came down to Samaria in order to lay hands on the Samaritans so that they would receive the Spirit. Many, after coming to faith in Jesus Christ, have later had hands laid upon them and experienced the fullness of the Holy Spirit. Something evidential certainly happened since Simon the magician sought to purchase the power to impart the Spirit just as the Apostles.

In Acts 10 the sign of tongues is again explicitly mentioned when Peter preaches Christ to the household of Cornelius (1044-46). The Spirit came on Gentiles at the house "while Peter was still speaking" the Gospel message. Later Peter argued that this was evidence that Gentiles received "the same gift" as Jewish believers (1115�17). Thus confirming in Acts that speaking in tongues was an outward evidence of the unity of a church just discovering that it was to be composed not only of Jews but of Samaritans and Gentiles as well!

Acts 1 is the final account in which tongues is included. Twelve disciples of John at Ephesus received the fuller revelation of Christ, these people had received a baptism of repentance, which was in itself a good thing, but unlike Apollos (18�5), they did not seem to know anything about Jesus, and were baptized and when the Spirit came upon them they spoke in tongues and prophesied (v. 1-6). The Ephesians' lack of the Spirit in Acts 1 was unquestionable proof that they had not yet come to full Christian faith.

From these four cases several points emerge. First, there are cases where people believe and yet they receive the Holy Spirit subsequently. Acts 8 is the clearest of these cases. Acts would really not provide support for subsequence since all sides of this controversy must grant that no one was baptized with the Holy Spirit prior to this time (Acts 14-5). The new mission of the Holy Spirit was to rest upon all flesh, that is, upon all of God's people and not only upon the official leaders. The promise of this new outpouring of the Spirit would result in new manifestations of prophecy, of visions, and of dreams. They did believe but yet could not receive the Spirit until this gift was in fact given after the glorification of Christ (Jn. 77-).

In Acts 10, though tongues do appear, there is no gap of time between the preaching of the Gospel, faith, and the reception of the Spirit. Thus, we can concur as Peter did, for he described the reception of the Spirit by Cornelius and his household in these words, "the Holy Ghost fell on them, as on us at the beginning" (Acts 1115; 158).

Acts 1 is also not a good case for subsequent since it appears obvious that these disciples had not yet received the full message of Christ. After they did hear the gospel the Holy Spirit came upon them and they experienced two spiritual gifts (tongues and prophecy). There is no good contextual reason for saying that the spiritual gifts here received are any different from what is found in I Corinthians 1-14.

Secondly, Pentecostalism reasons that tongues function as a uniform sign of the Spirit-baptism in each of these cases. Tongues do not appear in only one of the passages and yet even here there is an implied sign of evidential value (Acts 8). Those who defend the Initial Evidence Doctrine rightly argue that something happened in this case and it is reasonable to suppose it was tongues since the three other passages so affirm. Moreover, tongues-speaking fulfills the same function in Acts 1046-47("they received the Spirit the same way we did") and accompanies prophecy in fulfilling the role of evidencing prophetic empowerment in Acts 16.

Not only is the Spirit-baptism distinct from conversion or faith, but it is uniformly accompanied by a visible or audible sign. The next implied argument is that there are no counter examples in the book of Acts. In other words, not only does the Bible positively describe the experience of the Spirit-baptism with an accompanying sign but one will not find examples in which people are baptized with the Spirit without an external sign.

One can conclude then the case for the Initial Evidence Doctrine by saying that it is a teaching based on a discerned pattern in the book of Acts illustrating the way in which early believers experienced the baptism in the Holy Spirit. This pattern demonstrates two key points (1) the baptism in the Spirit is distinct from conversion or faith and () the initial sign of this experience was uniformly that of speaking with other tongues.

Whatever one may believe, The Holy Spirit definitely came upon those believers in Acts and there was definitely some outward sign signifying their experience and after careful examination of the scriptures that Luke recorded, one can conclude the initial evidence of Spirit-baptism is in fact tongues.

Bibliography

Achtemeier, P.J. Harper's Bible Dictionary. San Francisco, California Harper & Row, 185.

Brumback, Carl. What Meaneth This. Springfield, New Jersey Gospel Publishing House, 147.

Campbell, Bob. Baptism in the Holy Spirit Command or Option? Monroeville, Pennsylvania Whitaker Books, 17.

Cartledge, Mark J. Charismatic Glossolalia. Burlington, Vermont Ashgate Publishing, 00.

Clark, Gordon H. The Holy Spirit. Jefferson, Maryland The Trinity Foundation, 1.

Harris, Ralph. Acts Today. Springfield, Missouri Gospel Publishing House, 15.

Holdcroft, L.T. The Holy Spirit A Pentecostal Interpretation. Abbotsford, Canada CeeTeC Publishing, 16.

Hubbard, David A. The Holy Spirit in Today's World. Waco, Texas Word Books, 17.

Keener, Craig S. Crucial Questions about the Holy Spirit. Grand Rapids, Michigan Baker Books, 16.

Maranville, Donald. Speaking with other tongues as initial physical evidence of Baptism in the Holy Spirit. Chapel Sermon Friday, November 15, 00.

McGee, Gary B. Initial Evidence. Peabody, Massachusetts Hendrickson Publishers, 11.

Richards, L. The Teacher's Commentary. Wheaton, Illinois Victor Books, 18.

Stott, John R. Baptism & Fullness The Work of the Holy Spirit Today. Downers Grove, Illinois InterVarsity Press, 164.

Torrey, R.A. The Baptism with the Holy Spirit. New York Fleming H. Revell Company, 185.

Wiersbe, W. The Bible Exposition Commentary. Wheaton, Illinois Victor Books, 1.

Williams J.R. The Gift of the Holy Spirit Today. Plainfield, New Jersey Logos International, 180.

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Aids

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Finding the Cure for AIDS

When AIDS was first discovered twenty years ago, it was believed to a be disease that only occurred within the homosexual community. Now what was once considered to be a problem among a "small group", is now a pandemic that affects not only homosexuals, but their heterosexual counterparts. Recently there has been a lot of controversy surrounding finding a cure for AIDS. While most people support the extensive government research for finding a cure, there are also people who believe that finding a cure for AIDS is morally wrong and will upset the balance of nature. In

Carson's "Nature Fights Back", she explains the importance of maintaining a "balance" within nature and the detrimental effects of any interference.

Billions of dollars have been spent by the U.S. government to find a cure for AIDS. Although a lot of research is being done and new drugs are being developed, things seem to be only getting worse. New strains of AIDS have surfaced, which are have mutated and have become immune to drugs. According to Carson,

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"The "impossible" is now happening on two broad fronts. By a process of genetic selection, the insects are developing strains of resistance to chemicals …But the broader problem, […] is the that our chemical attack is weakening the defenses inherent in the environment itself, defenses designed to keep the various species in check." (456)

Although Carson is talking about the use of pesticides and how certain insects have become immune to them, you can easily relate it to AIDS and how it has transformed and mutated therefore making itself immune to prescription drugs that are currently on the market. Many scientists fail to realize that organisms mutate or transform themselves in order to insure that they survive. This was proved by Darwin's "Natural Selection". Darwin says that, "…in successive generations , some slight advantage over other males, in their weapons, means of defense or charms; and have transmitted these advantages to their male offspring"(444) What Darwin is saying is that organisms make sure that the next generation is "stronger" to insure their survival. Therefore, it's not surprising to see why many strains of AIDS have mutated.

One question that often arises about searching for the cure for AIDS is, whether or not it is moral. AIDS is a pandemic that affects more and more people every year. In Africa, AIDS has been disastrous and many people die because they cannot afford the medication or due to the hospital's poor condition. Many people like to believe that AIDS is "God's Punishment" for homosexuals and drug users. A vast majority of new infections are transmitted during heterosexual sex. And if AIDS is "God's Punishment" for homosexuals, then why are lesbians one of the lowest risk groups for getting the disease? Whether or not the search for a cure is moral cannot be easily answered. According to Gould,

"Morality is a subject for philosophers, theologians, students of the humanities, indeed for all thinking people. The answers will not be read passively from nature. They do not, and cannot, arise from the data of science The factual state of the world does not teach us how we, with our powers for good and evil, should alter or preserve it in the most ethical manner." (48)

What Gould is saying is that morality and science do not mix. But when it comes to the prevention of AIDS, we must realize that morality places a crucial part. AIDS is a completely preventable disease. AIDS is perhaps the first major disease in American history that is 100% avoidable. One shouldn't just look to science to prevent the transmission HIV/AIDS, but they should look within themselves and reexamine their set of moral values.

AIDS isn't just a disease, but a moral issue. While many press for a cure, there are still others who believe that finding a cure upsets the "balance" of nature and natural order. No matter what side you choose, AIDS is still a problem in modern society and as a community, we are all responsible for protecting ourselves and more importantly, others.

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Halfway through the play, the Chorus appears on the scene to announce that the tragedy is on. His speech offers a meta-theatrical commentary on the nature of tragedy. Here, in apparently a reference to Jean Cocteau, tragedy appears as a machine in perfect order, a machine that proceeds automatically and has been ready since the beginning of time. Tension of the tragic plot is the tension of a spring the most haphazard event sets it on its inexorable march in some sense, it has been lying in wait for its catalyst. Tragedy belongs to an order outside human time and action. It will realize itself in spite of its players and all their attempts at intervention. Anouilh himself commented on the paradoxical nature of this suspense What was beautiful and is still beautiful about the time of the Greeks is knowing the end in advance. That is real suspense… As the Chorus notes, in tragedy everything has already happened. Anouilhs spectator has surrendered, masochistically, to a succession of events it can hardly bear to watch. Suspense here is the time before those events realization.

having compared tragedy to other media, the Chorus then sets it off generically, specifically from the genre of melodrama. Tragedy is restful and flawless, free of melodramatic stock characters, dialogues, and plot complications. All is inevitable. This inevitability lends, in spite of tragedys tension, the genre tranquility. Moreover, it gives its players innocence as they are only there to play their parts. Though Creon will later accuse Antigone of casting him as the villain in her little melodrama, the players are embroiled in a far more inexorable mechanism. Again, note the incommensurabilities between Anouilhs theory of the tragic and political allegory. The latter is necessarily engaged in the generally pedagogical passing of ethico-politico judgment, the arbitration of innocence, guilt, and complicity. Though tragic players face judgment, they do so on rather different terms.

The Sisters Rivalry

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As with Sophocles sistes, Ismene and Antigone appear as foils and rivals. Ismene is reasonable, timid, and obedient, full-figured and beautiful in being a good girl. In contrast, Antigone is recalcitrant, impulsive, and moody, sallow, thin, and decidedly resistant to being a girl like the rest. Though the Chorus emphasizes the plays distance from conventional melodrama, it is interesting to note how, in revision the opposition in Sophocles version, it perhaps imports the good girl/bad girl structure typical of this genre, not to mention a number of rather sentimental scenes. Ismene advises moderation, understanding, and capitulation. They must take Creons obligations into

account.

Anouilh develops another form of rivalry between the sisters with regards to femininity. Whereas Ismene is the appropriate, beautiful girl, Antigone curses her girlhood. Antigone in particular manifests her hatred for the ideal of femininity Ismene incarnates in their childhood, brutally binding her sister to a tree to stage her mutilation. Anouilh attributes Antigones hate and envy in Ismenes capacity to figure as an object of desire, as the woman men want. Thus, in attempting to seduce Haemon and become his woman, Antigone steals Ismenes goods�lipstick, rouge, perfume, powder, and frock�in another act of sisterly dismemberment. Through Ismene, Antigone would be a woman; as we will see, however, such human pleasures are not meant for her.

E. Motifs

The Chorus

-

In Greek tragedy, the Chorus consisted of a group of approximately ten people, playing the role of death messenger, dancing, singing, and commenting throughout from the margins of the action. Anouilh reduces the Chorus to a single figure who retains his collective function nevertheless. The Chorus represents an indeterminate group, be it the inhabitants of Thebes or the moved spectators. It also appears as narrator, framing frames the tragedy with a prologue and epilogue. In the prologue, it directly addresses the audience and is self- conscious with regards to the spectacle we are here tonight to take part in the story of Antigone. Like its ancient predecessor, Anouilhs Chorus prepares a ritual, instructing the audience on proper spectatorship. The Chorus then reappears throughout the play, marking its another turning points and futilely interceding into the action on our�that is, the spectators and Theban peoples�behalfs.

Click here for In-Depth Analysis.

Tragic Beauty

-

As noted above, Antigones insistence on her desire makes her monstrous, abject. At the same time, her abjection is her tragic beauty. Antigone announces this beauty throughout her encounter with Creon. Specifically Oedipus emerges as its model. Oedipus moment of beauty comes at his moment of total abjection, the moment when he knew all and had lost all servile hope and passed beyond the human community in his transgression of its founding taboo. Like Oedipus, Antigone will become beautiful at the moment of his total ruin. As Ismene notes, Antigones beauty is somehow not of this world, the kind of beauty that turns the heads of small children�be it in fear, awe, and otherwise.

The Tomb/Bridal Bed

-

A number of commentators have cast Antigone as a figure between two deaths, what we will refer to here as her death as a social or even human being and her death as her demise. The space between two deaths is most certainly materialized her tomb, the cave in which she, as a tabooed and abject body, is to be immured to keep her from polluting the polis. Her death sentence makes her more wretched than animals; such is her Oedipal beauty, a beauty in her inhuman abjection. As she appears to sense, however, she will not die alone. Her tomb will also serve as her bridal bed, Antigone ultimately bringing Haemon with her to the grave. Strangely, another of the tragedys victim�Queen Eurydice�meets her demise in another tomb that doubles as bridal chamber. Eurydice dies in her bedroom�bedecked by familiar, comforting feminine accoutrements, appearing as a maiden queen of sorts, having scarcely changed since her first night with Creon. The wound in her neck appears all the more horrible in marring her virgin neck. Her death would appear all the more tragic because she dies in all her feminine purity.

E. Symbols

Creons attack

-

Anouilh symbolizes Antigones transcendence of state power with Creons assault on her person during their confrontation. Enraged by her proud defiance and his inability to sway her, Creon seizes Antigone and twists her to his side. The immediate pain passes, however Creon squeezes to tightly, and Antigone feels nothing. Thus Antigone passes beyond the reach of state power and the realm of men.

Halfway through the play, the Chorus appears on the scene to announce that the tragedy is on. His speech offers a meta-theatrical commentary on the nature of tragedy. Here, in apparently a reference to Jean Cocteau, tragedy appears as a machine in perfect order, a machine that proceeds automatically and has been ready since the beginning of time. Tension of the tragic plot is the tension of a spring the most haphazard event sets it on its inexorable march in some sense, it has been lying in wait for its catalyst. Tragedy belongs to an order outside human time and action. It will realize itself in spite of its players and all their attempts at intervention. Anouilh himself commented on the paradoxical nature of this suspense What was beautiful and is still beautiful about the time of the Greeks is knowing the end in advance. That is real suspense… As the Chorus notes, in tragedy everything has already happened. Anouilhs spectator has surrendered, masochistically, to a succession of events it can hardly bear to watch. Suspense here is the time before those events realization.

having compared tragedy to other media, the Chorus then sets it off generically, specifically from the genre of melodrama. Tragedy is restful and flawless, free of melodramatic stock characters, dialogues, and plot complications. All is inevitable. This inevitability lends, in spite of tragedys tension, the genre tranquility. Moreover, it gives its players innocence as they are only there to play their parts. Though Creon will later accuse Antigone of casting him as the villain in her little melodrama, the players are embroiled in a far more inexorable mechanism. Again, note the incommensurabilities between Anouilhs theory of the tragic and political allegory. The latter is necessarily engaged in the generally pedagogical passing of ethico-politico judgment, the arbitration of innocence, guilt, and complicity. Though tragic players face judgment, they do so on rather different terms.

The Sisters Rivalry

-

As with Sophocles sistes, Ismene and Antigone appear as foils and rivals. Ismene is reasonable, timid, and obedient, full-figured and beautiful in being a good girl. In contrast, Antigone is recalcitrant, impulsive, and moody, sallow, thin, and decidedly resistant to being a girl like the rest. Though the Chorus emphasizes the plays distance from conventional melodrama, it is interesting to note how, in revision the opposition in Sophocles version, it perhaps imports the good girl/bad girl structure typical of this genre, not to mention a number of rather sentimental scenes. Ismene advises moderation, understanding, and capitulation. They must take Creons obligations into

account.

Anouilh develops another form of rivalry between the sisters with regards to femininity. Whereas Ismene is the appropriate, beautiful girl, Antigone curses her girlhood. Antigone in particular manifests her hatred for the ideal of femininity Ismene incarnates in their childhood, brutally binding her sister to a tree to stage her mutilation. Anouilh attributes Antigones hate and envy in Ismenes capacity to figure as an object of desire, as the woman men want. Thus, in attempting to seduce Haemon and become his woman, Antigone steals Ismenes goods�lipstick, rouge, perfume, powder, and frock�in another act of sisterly dismemberment. Through Ismene, Antigone would be a woman; as we will see, however, such human pleasures are not meant for her.

E. Motifs

The Chorus

-

In Greek tragedy, the Chorus consisted of a group of approximately ten people, playing the role of death messenger, dancing, singing, and commenting throughout from the margins of the action. Anouilh reduces the Chorus to a single figure who retains his collective function nevertheless. The Chorus represents an indeterminate group, be it the inhabitants of Thebes or the moved spectators. It also appears as narrator, framing frames the tragedy with a prologue and epilogue. In the prologue, it directly addresses the audience and is self- conscious with regards to the spectacle we are here tonight to take part in the story of Antigone. Like its ancient predecessor, Anouilhs Chorus prepares a ritual, instructing the audience on proper spectatorship. The Chorus then reappears throughout the play, marking its another turning points and futilely interceding into the action on our�that is, the spectators and Theban peoples�behalfs.

Click here for In-Depth Analysis.

Tragic Beauty

-

As noted above, Antigones insistence on her desire makes her monstrous, abject. At the same time, her abjection is her tragic beauty. Antigone announces this beauty throughout her encounter with Creon. Specifically Oedipus emerges as its model. Oedipus moment of beauty comes at his moment of total abjection, the moment when he knew all and had lost all servile hope and passed beyond the human community in his transgression of its founding taboo. Like Oedipus, Antigone will become beautiful at the moment of his total ruin. As Ismene notes, Antigones beauty is somehow not of this world, the kind of beauty that turns the heads of small children�be it in fear, awe, and otherwise.

The Tomb/Bridal Bed

-

A number of commentators have cast Antigone as a figure between two deaths, what we will refer to here as her death as a social or even human being and her death as her demise. The space between two deaths is most certainly materialized her tomb, the cave in which she, as a tabooed and abject body, is to be immured to keep her from polluting the polis. Her death sentence makes her more wretched than animals; such is her Oedipal beauty, a beauty in her inhuman abjection. As she appears to sense, however, she will not die alone. Her tomb will also serve as her bridal bed, Antigone ultimately bringing Haemon with her to the grave. Strangely, another of the tragedys victim�Queen Eurydice�meets her demise in another tomb that doubles as bridal chamber. Eurydice dies in her bedroom�bedecked by familiar, comforting feminine accoutrements, appearing as a maiden queen of sorts, having scarcely changed since her first night with Creon. The wound in her neck appears all the more horrible in marring her virgin neck. Her death would appear all the more tragic because she dies in all her feminine purity.

E. Symbols

Creons attack

-

Anouilh symbolizes Antigones transcendence of state power with Creons assault on her person during their confrontation. Enraged by her proud defiance and his inability to sway her, Creon seizes Antigone and twists her to his side. The immediate pain passes, however Creon squeezes to tightly, and Antigone feels nothing. Thus Antigone passes beyond the reach of state power and the realm of men.

Halfway through the play, the Chorus appears on the scene to announce that the tragedy is on. His speech offers a meta-theatrical commentary on the nature of tragedy. Here, in apparently a reference to Jean Cocteau, tragedy appears as a machine in perfect order, a machine that proceeds automatically and has been ready since the beginning of time. Tension of the tragic plot is the tension of a spring the most haphazard event sets it on its inexorable march in some sense, it has been lying in wait for its catalyst. Tragedy belongs to an order outside human time and action. It will realize itself in spite of its players and all their attempts at intervention. Anouilh himself commented on the paradoxical nature of this suspense What was beautiful and is still beautiful about the time of the Greeks is knowing the end in advance. That is real suspense… As the Chorus notes, in tragedy everything has already happened. Anouilhs spectator has surrendered, masochistically, to a succession of events it can hardly bear to watch. Suspense here is the time before those events realization.

having compared tragedy to other media, the Chorus then sets it off generically, specifically from the genre of melodrama. Tragedy is restful and flawless, free of melodramatic stock characters, dialogues, and plot complications. All is inevitable. This inevitability lends, in spite of tragedys tension, the genre tranquility. Moreover, it gives its players innocence as they are only there to play their parts. Though Creon will later accuse Antigone of casting him as the villain in her little melodrama, the players are embroiled in a far more inexorable mechanism. Again, note the incommensurabilities between Anouilhs theory of the tragic and political allegory. The latter is necessarily engaged in the generally pedagogical passing of ethico-politico judgment, the arbitration of innocence, guilt, and complicity. Though tragic players face judgment, they do so on rather different terms.

The Sisters Rivalry

-

As with Sophocles sistes, Ismene and Antigone appear as foils and rivals. Ismene is reasonable, timid, and obedient, full-figured and beautiful in being a good girl. In contrast, Antigone is recalcitrant, impulsive, and moody, sallow, thin, and decidedly resistant to being a girl like the rest. Though the Chorus emphasizes the plays distance from conventional melodrama, it is interesting to note how, in revision the opposition in Sophocles version, it perhaps imports the good girl/bad girl structure typical of this genre, not to mention a number of rather sentimental scenes. Ismene advises moderation, understanding, and capitulation. They must take Creons obligations into

account.

Anouilh develops another form of rivalry between the sisters with regards to femininity. Whereas Ismene is the appropriate, beautiful girl, Antigone curses her girlhood. Antigone in particular manifests her hatred for the ideal of femininity Ismene incarnates in their childhood, brutally binding her sister to a tree to stage her mutilation. Anouilh attributes Antigones hate and envy in Ismenes capacity to figure as an object of desire, as the woman men want. Thus, in attempting to seduce Haemon and become his woman, Antigone steals Ismenes goods�lipstick, rouge, perfume, powder, and frock�in another act of sisterly dismemberment. Through Ismene, Antigone would be a woman; as we will see, however, such human pleasures are not meant for her.

E. Motifs

The Chorus

-

In Greek tragedy, the Chorus consisted of a group of approximately ten people, playing the role of death messenger, dancing, singing, and commenting throughout from the margins of the action. Anouilh reduces the Chorus to a single figure who retains his collective function nevertheless. The Chorus represents an indeterminate group, be it the inhabitants of Thebes or the moved spectators. It also appears as narrator, framing frames the tragedy with a prologue and epilogue. In the prologue, it directly addresses the audience and is self- conscious with regards to the spectacle we are here tonight to take part in the story of Antigone. Like its ancient predecessor, Anouilhs Chorus prepares a ritual, instructing the audience on proper spectatorship. The Chorus then reappears throughout the play, marking its another turning points and futilely interceding into the action on our�that is, the spectators and Theban peoples�behalfs.

Click here for In-Depth Analysis.

Tragic Beauty

-

As noted above, Antigones insistence on her desire makes her monstrous, abject. At the same time, her abjection is her tragic beauty. Antigone announces this beauty throughout her encounter with Creon. Specifically Oedipus emerges as its model. Oedipus moment of beauty comes at his moment of total abjection, the moment when he knew all and had lost all servile hope and passed beyond the human community in his transgression of its founding taboo. Like Oedipus, Antigone will become beautiful at the moment of his total ruin. As Ismene notes, Antigones beauty is somehow not of this world, the kind of beauty that turns the heads of small children�be it in fear, awe, and otherwise.

The Tomb/Bridal Bed

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A number of commentators have cast Antigone as a figure between two deaths, what we will refer to here as her death as a social or even human being and her death as her demise. The space between two deaths is most certainly materialized her tomb, the cave in which she, as a tabooed and abject body, is to be immured to keep her from polluting the polis. Her death sentence makes her more wretched than animals; such is her Oedipal beauty, a beauty in her inhuman abjection. As she appears to sense, however, she will not die alone. Her tomb will also serve as her bridal bed, Antigone ultimately bringing Haemon with her to the grave. Strangely, another of the tragedys victim�Queen Eurydice�meets her demise in another tomb that doubles as bridal chamber. Eurydice dies in her bedroom�bedecked by familiar, comforting feminine accoutrements, appearing as a maiden queen of sorts, having scarcely changed since her first night with Creon. The wound in her neck appears all the more horrible in marring her virgin neck. Her death would appear all the more tragic because she dies in all her feminine purity.

E. Symbols

Creons attack

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Anouilh symbolizes Antigones transcendence of state power with Creons assault on her person during their confrontation. Enraged by her proud defiance and his inability to sway her, Creon seizes Antigone and twists her to his side. The immediate pain passes, however Creon squeezes to tightly, and Antigone feels nothing. Thus Antigone passes beyond the reach of state power and the realm of men.

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Client/server technology

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Client/Server technology is very common amongst most infrastructures. Most of you are already familiar or have at least used this technology. This technology consists of at least a client and a server; the two must also have a way of communicating with each other. The client can either host the application and do the processing locally or serve as an interface to an application running from a server, the server either hosts the application and does the processing locally or act as a file store. Either way both are required for the Client/Server technology.

In the environment that I work in, one example of this technology is our Finance system. An application is installed on the local computer while the data lay on the server. When data is centrally managed ensuring that everyone's information is consistent.

When the client serves as an interface to an application located on and processed by a server, the client is called a thin-client. A thin-client does not have a local hard drive, the only memory it has is RAM. The benefit of this configuration is that the thin-client is much cheaper than a regular personal computer. Deployment is much easier due to the fact that there is no operating system to configure and no software to install, all of this is served up by the server. Since the application is only on the server, updating the application is also a less timely process since you only have one system to worry about. If there is a bug in an application or corruption occurs, the troubleshooting process is simplified since the application is only on the server. Obviously there is a down-side to this configuration, what if the server fails completely? Single point of failure is the issue here, but of course there are solutions and one that comes to mind is clustering. Clustering is having multiple servers all configured identically, to the users the cluster appears as one server. When a server goes down the cluster goes on giving you time to rebuild and restore the failed system, all of this is transparent to the users unless your clusters' resources were stretched to the limit in which this case you might experience delayed performance. Regardless delayed performance is better than no performance. One down side that is not avoidable is the cost of this configuration and the cost of maintenance. You will need very powerful servers in a large environment and you will need skilled professionals to keep the cluster humming along.

The more common configuration, which may not be more common in the near future, is having the application loaded on each individual personal computer so that the processing is performed locally and the data store located on the server(s). The benefit of this configuration is that there is a more balanced load amongst the client and the server. Performance is normally higher in this configuration and server maintenance is lighter. The cost of personal computers is so minimal these days that having efficiently powered systems is attainable by most companies without breaking the bank. The down-side of this configuration is the initial roll-out of the application or configuration of the personal computers. There is also another layer to the troubleshooting process in this type of configuration, first you need take into consideration the ID-Ten-T error, then determine whether the issue exists at the server or local computer. Help with essay on client/server technology

Both examples of Client/Server technologies have their benefits and down-sides. Regardless of which configuration that you are using you must always account for data recovery. In both configurations the data lay on the server(s) and if there is a failure you need to be able to recover, or at least have your resume updated. Even with redundant systems data recovery is ultimately necessary. In my environment I restore "missing" data on a weekly basis, even though I can prove who deleted it and when the spotlight is still shining away on me when emergencies arise. Backups are an administrator's best friend.

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Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

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The introduction of any new technology is usually preceded by much hyperbole and rhetoric. In many cases, the revolution predicted never gets beyond this. In many more, it never achieves the wildly over optimistic growth forecasted by market specialists - home computing and the paperless office to name but two. It is fair to say, however, by whatever method you use to evaluate a new technology, that synchronous digital transmission does not fall into this category. The fundamental benefits to be gained from its deployment by PTOs seem to be so overwhelming that, bar a catastrophe, the bulk of todays plesiochronous transmission systems used for high speed backbone links will be pushed aside in the next few years. To quote Dataquest, It has been claimed by many industry experts that the impact of synchronous technology will equal that of the transition from analogue to digital technology or from copper to fibre optic based transmission.

For the first time in telecommunications history there will be a world-wide, uniform and seamless transmission standard for service delivery. Synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) provides the capability to send data at multi-gigabit rates over todays single-mode fibre-optics links. This first issue of Technology Watch looks at synchronous digital transmission and evaluates its potential impact. Following issues of TW will look at customer oriented broad-band services that will ride on the back of SDH deployment by PTOs. These will include

· Frame relay

· SMDS (Switched Multi-Megabit Data Service)

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· ATM (asynchronous transfer mode)

· High speed LAN services such as FDDI

Overview

The use of synchronous digital transmission by PTOs in their backbone fibre-optic and radio network will put in place the enabling technology that will support many new broad-band data services demanded by the new breed of computer user. However, the deployment of synchronous digital transmission is not only concerned with the provision of high-speed gigabit networks. It has as much to do with simplifying access to links and with bringing the full benefits of software control in the form of flexibility and introduction of network management.

In many respects, the benefits to the PTO will be the same as those brought to the electronics industry when hard wired logic was replaced by the microprocessor. As with that revolution, synchronous digital transmission will not take hold overnight, but deployment will be spread over a decade, with the technology first appearing on new backbone links. The first to feel the benefits will be the PTOs themselves, as demonstrated by the technologys early uptake by many operators including BT. Only later will customers directly benefit with the introduction of new services such as connectionless LAN-to-LAN transmission capability.

According to one market research company it will take until the mid or late 10s before 70% of revenue for network equipment manufacturers will be derived from synchronous systems. Remembering that this is a multi-billion $ market, this constitutes a radical change by any standard Users who extensively use PCs and workstations with LANs, graphic layout, CAD and remote database applications are now looking to the telecommunication service suppliers to provide the means of interlinking these now powerful machines at data rates commensurable with those achieved by their own in-house LANs. They also want to be able to transfer information to other metropolitan and international sites as easily and as quickly as they can to a colleague sitting at the next desk.

Plesiochronous Transmission.

Digital data and voice transmission is based on a .048Mbit/s bearer consisting of 0 time division multiplexed (TDM) voice channels, each running at 64Kbps (known as E1 and described by the CCITT G.70 specification). At the E1 level, timing is controlled to an accuracy of 1 in 1011 by synchronising to a master Caesium clock. Increasing traffic over the past decade has demanded that more and more of these basic E1 bearers be multiplexed together to provide increased capacity. During this time rates have increased through 8, 4, and 140Mbit/s. The highest capacity commonly encountered today for inter-city fibre optic links is 565Mbit/s, with each link carrying 7,680 base channels, and now even this is insufficient.

Unlike E1 .048Mbit/s bearers, higher rate bearers in the hierarchy are operated plesiochronously, with tolerances on an absolute bit-rate ranging from 0ppm (parts per million) at 8Mbit/s to 15ppm at 140Mbit/s. Multiplexing such bearers (known as tributaries in SDH speak) to a higher aggregate rate (e.g. 4 x 8Mbit/s to 1 x 4Mbit/s) requires the padding of each tributary by adding bits such that their combined rate together with the addition of control bits matches the final aggregate rate. Plesiochronous transmission is now often referred to as plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH).

Because of the large investment in earlier generations of plesiochronous transmission equipment, each step increase in capacity has necessitated maintaining compatibility with what was already installed by adding yet another layer of multiplexing. This has created the situation where each data link has a rigid physical and electrical multiplexing hierarchy at either end. Once multiplexed, there is no simple way an individual E1 bearer can be identified in a PDH hierarchy, let alone extracted, without fully demultiplexing down to the E1 level again as shown in Figure .

The limitations of PDS multiplexing are

· A hierarchy of multiplexers at either end of the link can lead to reduced reliability and resilience, minimum flexibility, long reconfiguration turn-around times, large equipment volume, and high capital-equipment and maintenance costs.

· PDH links are generally limited to point-to-point configurations with full demultiplexing at each switching or cross connect node.

· Incompatibilities at the optical interfaces of two different suppliers can cause major system integration problems.

· To add or drop an individual channel or add a lower rate branch to a backbone link a complete hierarchy of MUXs is required as shown in figure .

· Because of these limitations of PDH, the introduction of an acceptable world-wide synchronous transmission standard called SDH is welcomed by all.

Synchronous Transmission

In the USA in the early 180s, it was clear that a new standard was required to overcome the limitations presented by PDH networks, so the ANSI (American National Standards Institute) SONET (synchronous optical network) standard was born in 184. By 188, collaboration between ANSI and CCITT produced an international standard, a superset of SONET, called synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH).

US SONET standards are based on STS-1 (synchronous transport signal) equivalent to 51.84Mbit/s. When encoded and modulated onto a fibre optic carrier STS-1 is known as OC-1. This particular rate was chosen to accommodate a US T- plesiochronous payload to maintain backwards compatibility with PDH. Higher data rates are multiples of this up to STS-48, which is ,488Gbit/s.

SDH is based on an STM-1 (155.5Mbit/s) rate, which is identical to the SONET STS- rate. Some higher bearer rates coincide with SONET rates such as STS-1 and STM-4 = 6Mbit/s, and STS-48 and STM-16 = .488Gbit/s. Mercury is currently trialing STM-1 and STM-16 rate equipment.

SDH supports the transmission of all PDH payloads, other than 8Mbit/s, and ATM, SMDS and MAN data. Most importantly, because each type of payload is transmitted in containers synchronous with the STM-1 frame, selected payloads may be inserted or extracted from the STM-1 or STM-N aggregate without the need to fully hierarchically de-multiplex as with PDH systems.

Further, all SDH equipment is software controlled, even down to the individual chip, allowing centralised management of the network configuration, and largely obviates the need for plugs and socketsBenefits of SDH Transmission

SDH transmission systems have many benefits over PDH

· Software Control allows extensive use of intelligent network management software for high flexibility, fast and easy re-configurability, and efficient network management.

· Survivability. With SDH, ring networks become practicable and their use enables automatic reconfiguration and traffic rerouting when a link is damaged. End-to-end monitoring will allow full management and maintenance of the whole network.

· Efficient drop and insert. SDH allows simple and efficient cross-connect without full hierarchical multiplexing or de-multiplexing. A single E1 .048Mbit/s tail can be dropped or inserted with relative ease even on Gbit/s links.

· Standardisation enables the interconnection of equipment from different suppliers through support of common digital and optical standards and interfaces.

· Robustness and resilience of installed networks is increased.

· Equipment size and operating costs are reduced by removing the need for banks of multiplexers and de-multiplexers. Follow-on maintenance costs are also reduced.

· Backwards compatibly will enable SDH links to support PDH traffic.

· Future proof. SDH forms the basis, in partnership with ATM (asynchronous transfer mode), of broad-band transmission, otherwise known as B-ISDN or the precursor of this service in the form of Switched Multimegabit Data Service, (SMDS).

Conclusions

The introduction of synchronous digital transmission in the form of SDH will eventually revolutionise all aspects of public data communication from individual leased lines through to trunk networks. Because of the state-of-the-art nature of SDH and SONET technology, there are extensive field trials taking place in 1 throughout the world prior to introduction in the 1 - 15 time scale.

There is still a lack of understanding of the ramifications of the introduction of SDH within telecommunications operations. In practice, the use of extensive software control will impact positively all parts of the business. It is not so much a question of whether the technology will be taken up, but when.

Introduction of SDH will lead to the availability of many new broad-band data services providing users with increased flexibility. It is in this area where confusion reigns with potential technologies vying for supremacy. These will be discussed in future issues of Technology Watch.

Importantly for PTOs, SDH will bring about more competition between equipment suppliers designing essentially to a common standard. One practical effect could be to force equipment prices down, brought about by the larger volumes engendered by access to world rather than local markets. At least one manufacturer is currently stating that they will be spending up to 80% of their SDH development budgets on management software rather than hardware. Such was the situation in the computer industry in the early 180s. Not least, it will have a great impact on such issues as staffing levels and required personal skills of personnel within PTOs.

SDH deployment will take a great deal of investment and effort since it replaces the very infrastructure of the worlds core communications networks. But it must not be forgotten that there are still many issues to be resolved.

The benefits to be gained in terms of improving operator profitability, and helping them to compete in the new markets of the 10s, are so high that deployment of SDH is just a question of time.

Benefits of a Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

Synchronous transmission overcomes the limitations experienced in a plesiochronous network. It allows the network to evolve to meet the new demands being placed upon it. Synchronous offers a number of benefits, both to telecoms, network operators, and to end users.

NETWORK SIMPLIFICATION

One of the main benefits seen by a network operator is the network simplification brought about through the use of synchronous equipment. A single synchronous multiplexer can perform the function of an entire plesiochronous multiplexer mountain, leading to significant reductions in the amount of equipment used. Lower operation costs will also result due to the reduction in required spare inventory, simplified maintenance, the reduction in floor space required by equipment and lower power consumptions. The more efficient drop and insert of channels offered by an SDH network, together with its powerful network management capabilities, will lead to greater ease in provisioning of high bandwidth lines for new multimedia services, as well as ubiquitous access to those services. Thus, the simplification of the network, and the new flexibility this brings, opens up the potential for the network operator to generate new revenues.

SURVIVABILITY

The deployment of optical fiber throughout the network and adoption of the SDH network elements makes end to end monitoring and maintenance of network integrity a possibility. The network management capability of the synchronous network will enable immediate identification of link and node failure. Using self-healing ring architectures, the network will be automatically reconfigured with traffic instantly rerouted until the faulty equipment has been repaired.

Thus, failures in the network transport mechanism will be invisible on an end to end basis. Such failures will not disrupt services, allowing network operators to commit to extremely high availability of service figures, and guarantee high levels of network performance.

SOFTWARE CONTROL

Provision of network management channels within the SDH frame structure means that a synchronous network will be fully software controllable. Network management systems will not only perform traditional event management functions such as dealing with alarms in the network, but will also provide a host of other functions, like performance monitoring, configuration management, resource management, network security, inventory management, and network planning and design.

The possibility of remote provisioning and centralized maintenance will result in a great savings in time spent by maintenance personnel in travelling to remote sites, and this of course corresponds to a reduction of expenses.

BANDWIDTH ON DEMAND

In a synchronous network it will be possible to dynamically allocate network capacity, or bandwidth, on demand. Users anywhere within the network will be able to subscribe at very short notice to any service offered over the network, some of which may require large amounts of bandwidth. An example of this is dial-up video-conferencing. Users will be able to obtain the required bandwidth for a video-conferencing link just by dialing the appropriate number, as opposed to the current situation where video-conferencing links must reserved days in advance.

Many other new services become possible in a synchronous network . These will represent new sources of revenue for network operators, and provide increased conveniences for users. Some examples of such services are high speed packet switched services, LAN interconnection, and High Definition TV (HDTV).

FUTURE-PROOF NETWORKING

The synchronous digital hierarchy offers network operators a future-proof network solution, plus the ability to upgrade software and extensions to existing equipment. They can be confident their investment in equipment is money well spent because synchronous has been selected as the bearer network for the next generation of telecommunication networks, the Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN). Research into implementation of B-ISDN is underway as part of the RACE program in Europe. B-ISDN will enable all users to have access to the network at rates in the order of Mega bits per second.

STANDARDIZATION

The SDH standards mean that for the first time, transmission equipment from different manufacturers can interwork on the same link. The ability to achieve this so-called mid-fiber meet has come about as a result of standards which define fiber-to-fiber interfaces at the physical (photon) level. They determine the optical line rate, wavelength, power levels, pulse shapes and coding. Frame structure, overhead and payload mappings are also defined.

This standardization of equipment and interfaces in SDH means network operators have freedom to choose different equipment from different vendors, and be confident that it will interwork. This means operators can avoid the problems traditionally associated with being locked into proprietary solutions from a single vendor.

SDH standards also facilitate interworking between North American and European transmission hierarchies. Using plesiochronous transmission, this was difficult, due to the different transmission rates used on each side of the Atlantic.

THE IMPACT OF SYNCHRONOUS

In the short term, network operators will adopt synchronous transmission equipment due to its improvement in network quality and its reduction in operating costs compared to plesiochronous transmission. The long term vision of a flexible and efficient network, with full network management facilities will also make this attractive.

Once widespread deployment of synchronous transmission systems occurs, the way in which network are designed, operated, and managed will change completely. Currently, network complexity makes deployment of new services a difficult proposition. In a much simplified synchronous network, service providers will be freed from these complexities. As a result they will be able to offer a rich mixture of services.

Thus, the SDH will eliminate the network complexity which currently restricts the growth of new services. Eventually a truly global telecommunications network will evolve where it will be possible to seamlessly transfer multimedia information almost anywhere at any time.

Limitations of the Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy

The problem of flexibility in a plesiochronous network is illustrated by considering what a network operator may need to do in order to be able to provide a business customer with a Mbits leased line. If a high speed channel passes near the customer, the operation of providing him with a single Mbits line from within that channel would seem straightforward enough. In practice, however, it is not so simple.

The use of justification bits at each level in the PDH means that identifying the exact location of the frames in a single Mbits line within say a 140 Mbits channel is impossible. In order to access a single Mbits line the 140 Mbits channel must be completely demultiplexed to its 64 constituent Mbits lines via 4 and 8 Mbits. Once the required Mbits line has been identified and extracted, the channels must then be multiplexed back up to 140 Mbits.

Obviously this problem with the drop and insert of channels does not make for very flexible connection patterns or rapid provisioning of services, while the multiplexer mountains required are extremely expensive

Another problem associated with the huge amount of multiplexing equipment in the network is one of control. On its way through the network, a Mbits leased line may have travelled via a number of possible routes. The only way to ensure it follows the correct path is to keep careful records of the interconnection of the equipment. However, as the amount of reconnection activity in the network increases it becomes more difficult to keep records current and the possibility of mistakes increases. Such mistakes are likely to affect not only the connection being established but also to disrupt existing connections carrying live traffic.

Another limitation of the PDH is its lack of performance monitoring capability. Operators are coming under increasing pressure to provide business customers with improved availability and error performance, and there is insufficient provision for network management within the PDH frame format for them to be able to do this.

The STM-1 Frame

As was explained in the last section an STM-1 frame consists of 40 bytes which can be considered as a structure of 70 columns x lines. The frame is divided into three main sections

Payload Area

AU Pointer Area

Section Overhead Area

PAYLOAD

We have seen previously that signals from all levels of the PDH can be accommodated in a synchronous network by packaging them together in the payload area of an STM-1 frame.

The plesiochronous tributaries are mapped into the appropriate synchronous container, and a single column of nine bytes, known as the Path Overhead (POH), is added to form the relevant Virtual Container (VC). The path overhead provides information for use in end-to-end management of a synchronous path.

The Figure bellow describes VC-4 packaging with VC-4 Path Overhead

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The Storming Of The Bastille

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Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 178)

The prison had seven people inside, a symbol of oppression to Parisians. King Louis XIV had sent troops to Paris. People had thought the Estates General would help them, but they were afraid the King and the army would stop reforms. They stormed the Bastille looking for gunpowder and weapons.

The army killed hundreds - six soldiers were killed by the mob. The Governor and the mayor of Paris were killed. Peasants revolted in the countryside, the Great Fear, destroying the last feudal privileges of the nobility. The peasants burned houses and destroyed records of peasants owing money.

The storming of the Bastille in Paris, France on July 14, 178 is recognized as one of the predominate steps in the spread of democracy in the western world. Numerous factors contributed to the sequence of events that lead to this historic event. One of the most significant was the weather.

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During France's growing season (April to July) in 1788, a ridge of high pressure prevailed throughout the region. As determined by extensive records kept by the Paris Astronomical Observatory, the air remained dry and hot, and the soil quickly became unsuitable for vegetation. In addition, the French peasants were ill-equipped for farming even under the best of circumstances. One historian noted that the implements were hardly superior to those employed during the Middle Ages.

On July 1, 1788, when the peasants were preparing for the harvest of a record low crop, a devastating thunderstorm passed through the region. Lord Dorset, the British Ambassador to France, wrote About o'clock in the morning, the darkness at Paris was very great… The hailstones that fell were of a size and weight never heard of before in this country, some of them measuring sixteen inches ... and in some places even larger. Two men were found dead upon the road … all the corn and vines destroyed, windows broken and even houses beaten down ... It is confidently said that from four to five hundred villages are reduced to such great distress the inhabitants must unavoidably perish.

The peasant folk, which comprised 0% of the population of France, were forever poor as a consequence of a feudal system that required a payment of excessive dues to the nobility and the Church. The arid conditions during the spring of 1788, and the destructive force of the July 1 thunderstorm, combined to bring desperation not only to many families but in many cases to entire communities.

The following winter of 1788-8, according to Neumann and Dettwiller (10, American Meteorological Society) was one of the harshest ever recorded in Europe. Thomas Jefferson, then an American minister in Paris, wrote that there came a winter of such severe cold as without example ... the mercury was at times 50 F below freezing … Great fires (were kept) at all the cross roads around which the people gathered in crowds to avoid perishing with cold.

The silk and textile industries located in the major cities of Paris also suffered in the months leading up to the storming of the Bastille. The scarcity of bread, and high cost of available food rations, eventually created panic throughout the population. The Great Fear of 178 held its grip throughout rural and urban areas. In the four months leading to July, 178, over 00 riots took place throughout France.

The storming of the Bastille, a political prison, on July 14, 178, was a watershed event in the French Revolution. Ironically, although it was suspected that hundreds of political prisoners were held captive, only seven were discovered and liberated. Nonetheless, within a few short weeks, the Declaration of Rights and the abolishment of feudal obligations led to a new, though at times difficult, era in France's history. Today, July 14 is celebrated as France's national holiday of independence and is known worldwide as Bastille Day.

The French Revolution I

The pivotal event of European history in the eighteenth century was the French Revolution. From its outbreak in 178, the Revolution touched and transformed social values and political systems in France, in Europe, and eventually throughout the world. Frances revolutionary regime conquered much of Western Europe with its arms and with its ideology. But not without considerable opposition at home and abroad. Its ideals defined the essential aspirations of modern liberal society, while its bloody conflicts posed the brutal dilemma of means versus ends.

The revolutionaries advocated individual liberty, rejecting all forms of arbitrary constraint monopolies on commerce, feudal charges laid upon the land, vestiges of servitude such as serfdom, and even (in 174) black slavery overseas. They held that political legitimacy required constitutional government, elections, and legislative supremacy. They demanded civil equality for all, denying the claims of privileged groups, localities, or religions to special treatment and requiring the equality of all citizens before the law. A final revolutionary goal was expressed by the concept of fraternity, which meant that all citizens regardless of social class, region, or religion shared a common fate in society, and that the well-being of the nation sometimes superseded the interests of individuals. The resounding slogan of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity expressed social ideals to which most contemporary citizens of the Western world would still subscribe.

I. Origins

Those who made the Revolution believed they were rising against tyrannical government, in which the people had no voice, and against inequality in the way obligations such as taxes were imposed and benefits distributed. Yet the government of France at that time was no more tyrannical or unjust than it had been in the past. On the contrary, a gradual process of reform had long been underway. What, then, set off the revolutionary upheaval? What had changed?

An easy answer would be to point to the incompetence of King Louis XVI (1774-17) and his queen, Marie Antoinette. Good-natured but weak and indecisive, Louis was a man of limited intelligence who lacked self-confidence. Worse yet, his young queen, a Hapsburg princess, was frivolous, meddlesome, and tactless. But even the most capable ruler could not have escaped challenge and crisis in the late eighteenth century. The roots of that crisis, not its mismanagement, claim the principal interest of historians.

The philosophes

In eighteenth-century France, as we have seen, intellectual ferment preceded political revolt. For decades the philosophes had bombarded traditional beliefs, institutions, and prejudices with devastating salvos. They undermined the confidence that traditional ways were the best ways. Yet the philosophes were anything but revolutionaries. Nor did they question the fact that elites should rule society, but wished only that the elites should be more enlightened and more open.

Indeed, the Enlightenment had become respectable by the 1780s, a kind of intellectual establishment. Diderots Encyclopedia, banned in the 1750s, was reprinted in a less expensive format with government approval in the 1770s. Most of Frances 0 provincial academies_learned societies of educated citizens in the larger towns had by that time been won over to the critical spirit and reformism of the Enlightenment, though not to its sometimes extreme secularism. Among the younger generation, the great cultural hero was Rousseau (see picture), whose Confessions (published posthumously in 1781) caused a sensation. Here Rousseau attacked the hypocrisy, conformity, cynicism, and corruption of high societys salons and aristocratic ways.

Though he had not exemplified this in his personal life, Rousseau came across in his novels and autobiography as the apostle of a simple, wholesome family life; of conscience, purity, and virtue. As such, he was the great inspiration to the future generation of revolutionaries, but the word revolution never flowed from his pen.

Underground literature

More subversive perhaps than the writings of the high enlightenment was the underground literature that commanded a wide audience in France. The monarchys censorship tried vainly to stop these bad books, which poured in across the border through networks of clandestine publishers, smugglers, and distributors. What was this fare that the reading public eagerly devoured?

Alongside a few banned works by the philosophes, there was a mass of gossip sheets, pulp novels, libels, and pornography under such titles as Scandalous Chronicles and The Private Life of Louis XV. Much of this material focused on the supposed goings-on in the fashionable world of Paris and Versailles. Emphasizing scandal and character assassination, this literature had no specific political content or ideology. But indirectly, it portrayed the French aristocracy as decadent and the French monarchy as a ridiculous despotism.

II. Fiscal Crisis

When he took the throne in 1774, Louis XVI tried to conciliate elite opinion by recalling the Parlements or sovereign law courts that his father had abolished in 1770. This concession to Frances traditional unwritten constitution backfired, however, since the Parlements resumed their defense of privilege in opposition to reforms proposed by Jacques Turgot, Louis, new controller general of finances. Turgot, a disciple of the philosophes and an experienced administrator, hoped to encourage economic growth by the policy of nonintervention or laissez-faire. When agitation against him mounted at Versailles and in the Paris Parlement, Louis took the easy way out and dismissed his troublesome minister.

The king then turned to a Protestant banker from Geneva with a reputation for financial wizardry, Jacques Necker. A shrewd man with a strong sense of public relations, Necker gained wide popularity. To finance the heavy costs of Frances aid to the rebellious British colonies in North America, Necker avoided new taxes and instead floated a series of large loans at exorbitant interest rates as high as 10 percent. Short of a complete overhaul of the tax system, little improvement in royal revenues could be expected, and the public would bitterly resist any additional tax burdens that the monarchy simply imposed.

Facing bankruptcy and unable to float any new loans in this atmosphere, the king recalled the Parlements, reappointed Necker, after tarying several other ministers, and agreed to convene the Estates General in May 178.

III. Estates General to National Assembly

The calling of the Estates General created extraordinary excitement across the land. When the king invited his subjects to express their opinions about this great event, hundreds did so in the form of pamphlets, and here the liberal or patriot ideology of 178 first began to take shape.

The Third Estate

While the king accorded the Third Estate twice as many delegates as the two higher orders, he refused to promise that the delegates would vote together (by head) rather than separately in three chambers (by order). A vote by order meant that the two upper chambers would outweigh the Third Estate no matter how many deputies it had.

It did not matter that the nobility had led the fight against absolutism. Even if they endorsed new, constitutional checks on absolutism and accepted equality in the allocation of taxes, nobles would hold vastly disproportionate powers if the Estates General voted by order. In the most influential of these pamphlets, AbbEmmanuel Joseph Sieye posed the question, What is the Third Estate? and answered flatly, Everything. The enemy was no longer simply absolutism but privilege as well.

Unlike reformers in England, or the Belgian rebels against Joseph II, or even the American revolutionaries of 1776, the French patriots did not look back to historical traditions of liberty that had been violated. Rather they contemplated a complete break with a discredited past. As a basis for reform, they would substitute reason for tradition.

Cahiers

For the moment, however, the patriots were far in advance of opinion at the grass roots. The king had invited citizens across the land to meet in their parishes to elect delegates to district electoral assemblies, and to draft grievance petitions (cahiers) setting forth their views. Highly traditional in tone, the great majority of rural cahiers complained only of particular local ills and expressed confidence that the king would redress them. Only a few cahiers from Iarger cities, including Paris, alluded to the concepts of natural rights or popular sovereignty that were appearing in patriot pamphlets. Very few demanded that France must have a written constitution, that sovereignty belonged to the nation, or that feudalism and regional privileges should be abolished.

Elections

Virtually every adult male taxpayer was eligible to vote for electors, who, in turn, chose deputies for the Third Estate. The electoral assemblies were a kind of political seminar, where articulate local leaders emerged to be sent by their fellow citizens as deputies to Versailles. These deputies were a remarkable collection of men, though scarcely representative of the mass of the Third Estate. Dominated by lawyers and officials, there was not a single worker or peasant among them. In the elections for the First Estate, meanwhile, democratic procedures assured that parish priests rather than Church notables would form a majority of the delegates. And in the elections to the Second Estate, about one third of the delegates could be described as liberal nobles or patriots.

National Assembly

Popular expectation that the monarchy would provide leadership in reform proved to be ill-founded. When the deputies met on May 5, Necker and Louis XVI spoke to them only in generalities, and left unsettled whether the estates would vote by order or by head. The upper two estates proceeded to organize their own chambers, but the deputies of the Third Estate balked. Inviting the others to join them, on June 17 the Third Estate took a decisive revolutionary step by proclaiming its conversion into a National Assembly.

A few days later 150 clergymen from the First Estate joined them. The king, who finally decided to cast his lot with the nobility, locked the Third Estate out of its meeting hall until a session could be arranged in which he would state his will. But the deputies moved to an indoor tennis court, and there swore that they would not separate until they had given France a constitution.

Ignoring this act of defiance, the king addressed the delegates of all three orders on June . He promised equality in taxation, civil liberties, and regular meetings of the Estates General at which, however, voting would be by order. France would be provided with a constitution, he pledged, but the ancient distinction of the three orders will be conserved in its entirety. He then ordered the three orders to retire to their individual meeting halls. This, the Third Estate refused.

When the royal chamberlain repeated his monarchs demand, the deputies, spokesman dramatically responded The assembled nation cannot receive orders. Startled by the determination of the patriots, the king backed down. For the time being, he recognized the National Assembly and ordered deputies from all three estates to join it. Thus the French Revolution began as a nonviolent, legal Revolution.

IV. The Convergence of Revolutions

The political struggle at Versailles was not occurring in isolation. Simultaneously, the mass of French citizens, already aroused by elections to the Estates General, were mobilizing over subsistence issues. The winter and spring of 1788-178 had brought severe economic difficulties, as crop failures and grain shortages almost doubled the price of flour and bread on which the population depended for subsistence. Unemployed vagrants and beggars filled the roads, grain convoys and marketplaces were stormed by angry consumers, and relations between town and country were strained.

This anxiety merged with rage over the behavior of aristocrats in Versailles. Parisians believed that food shortages and royal troops would be used to intimidate the people into submission. They feared an aristocratic plot against the Third Estate and the patriot cause.

Bastille

When the king dismissed the still-popular Necker on July 11, Parisians correctly assumed that the counter-revolution was about to begin. Instead of submitting, they revolted. Protesting before royal troops (some of whom defected to the insurgents), burning the hated toll barriers that surrounded the capital, and seizing grain supplies, Parisian crowds then began a search for weapons.

On the morning of July 14 they invaded the military hospital of the Invalides where they seized thousands of rifles without incident. Then they laid siege to the Bastille, an old fortress that had once been a major royal prison, where gunpowder was stored. There the small garrison did resist and a ferocious firefight erupted. Dozens of citizens were hit providing the first martyrs of the Revolution, but the garrison soon capitulated. As they left, several were massacred by the infuriated crowd.

Meanwhile, patriot electors ousted royal officials of the Paris city government, replaced them with a revolutionary municipality, and organized a citizens militia or national guard to patrol the city. Similar municipal revolutions occurred in 6 of the 0 largest French cities, thus assuring that the capitals defiance would not be an isolated act.

The Parisian insurrection of July 14 not only saved the National Assembly from annihilation but also altered the course of the Revolution by giving it a far more active, popular dimension. Again the king capitulated. Removing most of the troops around Paris, he traveled to the capital on July 17 and, to please the people, donned a cockade bearing the colors of white for the monarchy and blue and red for the city of Paris. This tricolor was to become the flag of the new France.

The Great Fear

These events did not pacify the anxious and hungry people of the countryside, however. The sources of peasant dissatisfaction were many and long standing. Population growth and the parceling of holdings were reducing the margin of subsistence for many families, while the purchase of land by rich townspeople exerted further pressure. Seigneurial dues and church tithes weighed heavily upon most peasants. Now, in addition, suspicions were rampant that nobles were hoarding grain in order to stymie the patriotic cause. In July peasants in several regions sacked the castles of the nobles and burned the documents that recorded their feudal obligations. This peasant insurgency eventually blended into a vast movement known as the Great Fear.

Rumors abounded that the vagrants who swarmed through the countryside were actually brigands in the pay of nobles who were marching on villages to destroy the new harvest and cow the peasants into submission. The fear was baseless, but it stirred up hatred and suspicion of the nobles, prompted a mass recourse to arms in the villages, and set off new attacks on chÉteaus and feudal documents. Peasant revolts and the Great Fear showed that the royal government was confronting a truly nationwide and popular revolution.

The night of August 4

Peasant insurgency worried the deputies of the National Assembly, but they decided to appease the peasants rather than simply denounce their violence. On the night of August 4, representatives of the nobility and clergy vied with one another in renouncing their ancient privileges. This set the stage for the Assembly to decree the abolition of feudalism as well as the tithe, venality of office, regional privilege, and social privilege.

Rights of Man and Citizen

By sweeping away the old web of privileges, the August 4th decree permitted the Assembly to construct a new regime. Since it would take months to draft a constitution, the Assembly drew up a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen to indicate the outline of its intentions. A rallying point for the future, the Declaration also stood as the death certificate of the old regime. It began with a ringing affirmation of equality Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility.

The Declaration went on to proclaim the sovereignty of the nation as against the king or any other group, and the supreme authority of legitimate law. Most of its articles concerned liberty, defined as the ability to do whatever does not harm another . . . whose limits can only be determined by law; they specified freedom from arbitrary arrest; freedom of expression and of religion; and the need for representative government. The Declarations concept of natural rights meant that the Revolution would be based on reason rather than history or tradition.

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Famine in Africa

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Famine is most prevalently defined as "acute starvation associated with a sharp increase in mortality."(www.africana.com) This, as far as one can see, direct definition, however, avoids the much more complicated question of why people reach the point of starvation. Conflicting to popular media coverage of the issue, famine in Africa is not a brief event, nor an immediate, unavoidable outcome of drought or other climatic misfortunes. Rather, research on the history of famine shows that several factors typically contribute to a societys or regions vulnerability to starvation, and that some of the causes of famine have changed substantially over the past century. Famine is an entity in which destroys thousands of lives on a daily basis, in the paragraphs to follow the complete definition of famine will be addressed, up to and including how many people are at risk and also what countries are most greatly affected by famine. The root causes of famine in Africa will also be addressed, followed by possible solutions to the famine crisis Africa has been, and currently is experiencing.

The spread of famine in Africa now threatens well over 0 million people and is overwhelming the capacity of relief agencies to address the problem. "There are estimated to be 600 million who do not have enough to eat. 400 million are actually starving. 000 million suffer from malnutrition."(181, Poverty and Famines, Oxford Clarendon press) These numbers are increasing by the minute and without assistance from the ever-hesitant developed world, Africa is doomed to a reoccurring endless cycle of famine, starvation and poverty.

"Famine can be defined as a temporary failure of food production or distribution systems in a particular region that leads to increased mortality due to starvation and diseases that result from lack of food."

(Global Connections Canadian and World Issues by Bruce Clark & John Wallace)Custom Essays on Famine in Africa

What many would not know is that famine is not one subject in it-self, there are many contributors accumulating to the overall terminology.

One of the most commonly known contributing factors that seems to be supplying famine with even more drive than ever before is hunger and malnutrition. In order to be healthy and active, we must have food in adequate quantity, quality and variety to meet our energy and nutrient requirements. Without them, children cannot develop their potential to the fullest, and adults will experience difficulty in maintaining or expanding theirs. Malnutrition in the form of deficiencies of essential vitamins and minerals continues to cause severe illness or death in thousands of people living in sub-Saharan Africa. In result, even mild forms of deficiencies can consequently hold a child back from their development and their ability to learn. Many of these consequences could possibly be alleviated by making sure adequate food supplies are widespread in variety and they also provide the right amount of essential vitamins and minerals. Starvation is an extreme form of hunger in which people suffer from a complete lack of energy and essential minerals. As the condition continues to worsen the body wastes away as tissue is perpetually consumed to provide protein and energy.

To put an end to the ever-evolving famine that Africa is facing doesn't even singularly begin with making sure enough food is made and available to the people. However, that even growing enough food doesn't guarantee that hunger and widespread famine would ever be eliminated. People need to be able to access nutritionally adequate food no matter what for a person to be able to lead a healthy life. The offering of everyone, through education of the problem, is extremely crucial to making sure the rights of the people in Africa to be free of famine that has stricken its economy for far too long is secure.

"Millions are at risk is nothing is done to help them. People are slowly running out of food. The drought destroyed crops last year and there are no imports. It's only a matter of time before we see visible hunger on the streets."

(Mercy Crops Food Program Manager Tom Ewert, from southern Africa, UN web sites.)

When discussing famine as a single subject one is prompted to inquire as to how many people are at risk of experiencing a genuine famine? More than seven million people are in immediate need of food assistance in southern Africa. (According to Mercy Crop workers in the area and the United Nations World Food Program, UN web sites) The amount of people in need of foreign aid has risen dramatically to a staggering 14.4 million, increased from May's approximate 1.8 million, with credible fears of a famine outbreak. According to officials associated with the United Nations up to 15 million people on the Horn of Africa could possibly also be faced with serious famine conditions in the up coming months.

Famine is undoubtedly hitting Africa much more strongly than ever before. North of the equator the entire Sahel region is at risk of a severe famine outbreak. (181, Poverty and Famines) Present famines are taking place in Liberia, Sudan and Somalia, the three main leading causes of famine in these places are failure of rain, war and things such as "cash crops"(the export of crops instead of using the food produced for themselves) If you were to head south of the equator, you would find the main location of famine to be situated in sub-Saharan Africa. This is not the only continent affected by famine, all around the world, places like Liberia, Iraq, China, India, Albania and Bosnia have all be stricken with famine.

To pinpoint a specific place, the Sahel is continually facing famine as a result of usual droughts. This can and has been linked with Eli Nino events that happened in the Pacific.

During 1 a serious drought had developed throughout southern Africa, affecting many countries, some as far as Kenya. It is estimated that 40 million people in that area were all facing extreme starvation during the month of September 1. The effect was population increase and it can be supported by the prime example of Zimbabwe. At the beginning of the century their population was 400,000 and then skyrocketed to 11 million. This would obviously suggest that this much larger number could certainly not survive especially with the current drought.

(www.angelfire.com/mac/egmatthews/worldinfo/problems/famine.htm)

The root causes of famine are many and somewhat complex in defining. The flow diagram attached will be of significant use in conveying that there is not just one cause of famine, wherever it may be affecting at the time. It's an accumulation of drought, flooding, governmental mismanagement and economic collapse have all come together to bring about the current crisis. Existing, widespread malnutrition and the highest rates of HIV/AIDS infection in the entire world compound the severity and the state of famine stricken regions. Each of the nations experiencing famine is faced with their own disastrous specific ambient factors. (Rabb, T. (editors), Hunger and History, Cambridge University Press)

Because of AIDS farming skills have been lost, agricultural extension services have declined, rural livelihoods have disintegrated, productive capacity to work the land has dropped and household earnings are shrinking while the cost of caring for the ill skyrockets it added.

War causes people to move off of their own land and prevents planting. As well as the lack of rain is connected with destruction of forests and other climatic changes. All of this results in a lack of terraces preventing collection of water, therefore the lack of trees prevents the rain from sinking in and absorbing into the land. The cause of famine in Mozambique is entirely placed upon the war, which has driven its people off of their land; Liberia is operating under some of the same conditions, experiencing famine following a civil war that destroyed a great amount of their infrastructure. (World Encyclopedia Collection, Blessed Trinity Library) Iraq is facing famine following the destruction of power supplies during the Gulf war including a failure to plant crops in land where the Kurds have been driven from their villages. Famine in the former Soviet Union is said to be arising as the result of extreme disorganization of the food distribution and absence of commercial networks. Also if the communist government in China collapses, although privatization of agriculture has already happened, leading to land being lost to urban building and rice to cash crops. Consequently, China's import of grains could destabilize the entire world's food markets. In Europe, Bosnia is experiencing famine as a result of war, and the collapse of the Communist economies in Albania had produced famine alleviated by European surpluses. (www.ifpri.org/pubs/fps//fps.8htm)

"Famines can result from either natural causes (for example, a drought or serious plant disease that causes crop failure) or human causes (for example, a civil war)" (Global Connections Canadian and World Issues by Bruce Clark & John Wallce)

Land that was once used to grow food for the local people of a village had come to be used for growing crops that would be sent to a "mother" or "developed" country. So this means that farmers did have the natural resources to produce an adequate amount of food rich in both quality/quantity and in variety. But, because they had no other form of income as a result of their country descending measureless steps behind in terms of industrialization, these primary industry workers were forced to export their crops to developed countries. Crops varied widely from colony to colony though included goods such as coffee, tea, sugar, bananas, cacao, cotton and silk. The end result of this was that some areas that has been self-supporting in food then became dependent on imports.

It's a distinct unarguable world issue that the food economy, even today, is unbalanced. Naturally, some parts of our world are much more productive than others, and one would imply that you could refer to it as the economic "food chain" So, still, we find ourselves plagued with the very same question we always have been, can the remaining funds of North America and Europe combined possibly be used to alleviate famine and hunger? Donating and/or selling items such as wheat or rice to Africa could evidently create a much stronger demand for imports. Meanwhile a good number of African countries already import a large amount of both wheat and bread, mainly because they cant grow it in their own land. The most obvious yet very controversial long term solution is to realize that there is a visible limit to the number of people a certain amount of land can sustain, the land can only support a certain amount of people before its natural resources begin to deteriorate forever. This particular idea especially proves to be true for many places like most of Australia and the Sahel where rainfall is uncertain and very scarce. The long-term solution definitely is something to think about mainly because many small islands have also adopted the very same idea. So, when thought about, couldn't the entire world, in actuality, be thought of as a small island?

Long term security must bring must bring food production and consumption into balance, mainly because at some time the number of consumers must cease to increase.

One of the most recent solutions that have even been discussed in class has been foreign aid. The international debt crisis plays a large role in this situation. Mainly because in the 170's when banks were willing to provide loans with low but floating interest rates, developing countries jumped at the idea of receiving funds, not ever thinking of when or how they would ever pay them back. That's exactly what happened, even today developing countries such as much of Africa is more than neck deep in millions of dollars worth of aid that has had no positive impact on its economy as a result of mismanagement of the funds. When a country is in as much debt as Africa it strongly prevents room for any type of human development because the crucial aspect of social services are largely cut back in order to attempt to even start paying back loans. Political responses to the issue are as follows "Majority of the debt will never be paid back, The losses have already occurred. But it will not in any way free up any new funds to fight AIDS or poverty. History strongly suggests that requirements attached to forgiveness (for fighting poverty or consulting the poor) will have only a modest effect, however well-intended."

(Grade 1 World Issues Notes provided by Mr. Lou Maida)

In conclusion by understanding the complete definition of famine and all that it addresses, including causes and solutions, one can then use this information not only for his/her own good, but the good of all mankind. The specific way a lot of people tend to react to the pictures of famine in Africa and around the world is more times than not, the question of "what can I do to help?" Many, either televised or not, reports on the issue seem to prompt people to ease their concerns by donating money. Although giving money to a justifiable cause is a nice gesture, there are many more, meaningful and just as fulfilling, possibly more so, things you could do that would also add to your generous donation. A great start to this could be educating yourself and others on the issue on hand, finding out about the countries citizens and there past and present situations. When we eventually gain the essential knowledge of famine and hunger and why it happens, majority of us are prone to ask questions and have our specific opinions on the matter intelligently challenged. With a combination of all of these tools, we are definitely better equipped to bring about substantial changes that will ass to the continuous fight against famine and hunger worldwide. Africa use to, and remains to be a continent of much promise. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) is committed to supplying Africans the support needed to strongly combat the enormous problem Africa is facing with many other organizations. North America and it's extremely modest donations work to provide the full-spirited and hopeful citizens of Africa with everything they are deserving of an education, employment, peace, financial stability, social justice in their courts, and a descent life complete with an established health care system.

There is no evidence to doubt that all famines in the modern world are preventable by human action; that when people die of starvation there is invariably some massive social failure (whether or not a natural phenomenon had an initiating role in the causal process); and that the responsibilities for that failure deserve explicit attention and analysis, not evasion.

( Dando, W., 180, The Geography of Famine, London Edward Arnold)

~!References!~

1.www.africana.com

.181, Poverty and Famines, Oxford Clarendon press

.Global Connections Canadian and World Issues by Bruce Clark & John Wallace

4.Mercy Crops Food Program Manager Tom Ewert, from southern Africa, UN web sites.

5.According to Mercy Crop workers in the area and the United Nations World Food Program, UN web sites

6. www.angelfire.com/mac/egmatthews/worldinfo/problems/famine.htmb sites

7. Rabb, T. (editors), Hunger and History, Cambridge University Press

8.World Encyclopedia Collection, Blessed Trinity Library

.www.ifpri.org/pubs/fps//fps.8htm

10.Grade 1 World Issues Notes provided by Mr. Lou Maida

11.Dando, W., 180, The Geography of Famine, London Edward Arnold

Please note that this sample paper on Famine in Africa is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Famine in Africa, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Famine in Africa will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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