A Conflicted End:Captain Vere's Death in Mehlville's "Billy Budd"

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Any analysis seeking to understand the intricacies of Captain Vere's death, must first display an adequate understanding of the noble Captain's life, and the elements of his person from which a conflicted passing may arise. It is important to first note the life Captain Vere lead. He was regarded by all as a just and noble man, abundant in all the qualities of leadership, personality, and humility that draw persons to their leader. He was also very unique in possessing and projecting onto those around him a sort of dreamy persona as dictated by his nickname 'Starry Vere.' (Perkins 164)

In fact, Vere's dominant good qualities set him as a character parallel to Billy Budd himself, as opposed to the antagonistic Claggart. Herein Mehlville sets the stage for unforeseen conflict, as it is Vere, Budd's counterpart in kindness and good nature that is ultimately faced with the difficult task of clinging to the principles that have always guided his life and ordering the death of his finest man.

It is the marriage of Vere's straightforward, fair leadership, and his compassion and personal attachment to Billy Budd that births the mortal conflict that manifests itself in Vere's dying words as Billy Budd's name is repeated over and over. In the Holy Bible, the Angel Rafael tells the boy Tobias, "Do that which is right and no harm shall come to thee." The honorable Captain vere can likely be found living in close accord with this principle as described by his treatment of subordinates, peers, and in his fair practices. In dealings with disciplinary and corrective actions on his ship, Vere is noted as "never tolerating an infraction of discipline." Sadly enough, it is this same righteous and admirable principle that undoubtedly forces Vere's hand in Blly's death.

Understanding Vere's upright practices and life add up to a significant wealth of information in light of why he was forced to reluctantly put Billy Budd to death. However, to understand from whence was birthed the conflict in Vere's death, it is necessary to couple this information with his appreciation of, and potentially love for Billy Budd as a sailor and a man. One line best encapsulates his feelings regarding Billy as he comments on his difficult, yet ordered actions following Claggart's death. Captain Vere speaks volumes of Billy Budd when he says, "struck by an angel of God! Yet the angel must hang!" (Perkins 1657)

This profound statement simultaneously addresses Vere's feelings about Budd in addition to the action he must take despite these feelings and his observation of Budd's somewhat innocence and inherent goodness. As the text goes on to illustrate through Budd's saint-like, almost angelic passing, and the crew's congregational repetition of Budd's dying words, he clearly passed on to the next world in a state of peace with himself, his actions, the crew, Captain Vere, and his soul. In fact, Budd's famous line, "God bless Captain Vere" (Perkins 166) directly expresses his state of peace regarding Captain Vere and the tough decision he makes.

It is my sincere belief that Vere's repeating Billy Budd's name reflects a similar parting view of this climactic crossroads that both gentlemen faced in their lives. Though the incident ultimately precipitated Budd's death, Vere's dying words illustrate the lasting effect of the events that transpired concerning Billy Budd and the undeniable challenge presented to Vere. As included in the piece, Vere feels no remorse with regard to his decision. However, it is clear that in his dying moments he is contemplative with and somewhat troubled by the ends to which his strick adherence to laws and codes guided him. As evidenced by Captain Vere's vague utterances of Budd's name, in contrast to Billy Budd's statement of closure, in passing Vere struggles with the finality of his decision and the condemnation that accompanied his decision to do what was technically right. On his dying lips is the conflict that results from not bending the rules the one time he knew he probably should have in an effort to save the worthiest vessel of all.

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"TOO LITTLE DEMOCRACY IN THEPHILIPPINES"

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Claro M. Recto patterned the Philippine Constitution after the U.S. Constitution so that President Franklin D. Roosevelt would ratify the Tydings-McDuffie Act which would enable the Philippines to regain their freedom. President Roosevelt approved the Constitution because the purpose of benevolent assimilation was to teach the Philippines how to form and administer a Republican form of government that would recognize human rights. In accordance with the U.S. constitution, the Philippine Constitution is regarded as the supreme law which promotes democracy to which all laws are subordinate.

The word democracy arose from the Greek word, Demos, which means 'many' while the latter part of the word means 'rule' and so the word would come to mean 'Rule of Many'. However, it is obvious that the goal of democracy; the very foundation on which the ideology was built, is a concept that has not come to be realized in the Philippines. There are three important points that must be addressed before one can analyze democracy; that is that democracy for the people, by the people and of the people.

The first point implies that the aim of an efficient democratic government is to make sure that all citizens of the state enjoy the human rights which are inherent to them through the creation, implementation and interpretation of law as overseen by the executive, legislative and judiciary branches of government. The second point focuses on the source of power which is the people because government officials should represent the needs of the people while the third clarifies that these officials are, in essence, accountable to the people. Looking at the history of injustice, corruption and prevalent poverty, the problem is not that there is too much democracy but that there is too little because the concept of democracy is not understood or perhaps ignored by our so-called "public servants".

To prove this, we shall look at several historic events which are supposedly the manifestation of democracy. The first example of such is the EDSA Revolution which occurred in the nd of February 186. While many would argue that it is an example of too much democracy because the mob mentality asserted itself so much that it deposed Ferdinand Marcos, we shall take a different view. Let us first look at the reason why it occurred. So many allies of Marcos and his family profited from the misery of the people because they did not understand that they were suppose to serve the people.Do my essay on "TOO LITTLE DEMOCRACY IN THEPHILIPPINES" CHEAP !

After 6 years of ignorance of our rights, the people were clamoring for change. The people wanted to change the leaders of government because the government was self-serving, and inefficient. Marcos' purpose was to annihilate the power of the masses by having the elite control the society. The elite few were composed of his associates and family members. The control of the people were slowly transferred to the elite who possessed both wealth and political influence which allowed them to make political and economic decisions that would benefit themselves instead of the masses. In essence, they were the source and beneficiaries of power.

When former President Marcos was ousted, the primary aims of the Aquino administration was to destroy what the 'power structure' of Marcos left, to bring back the integrity of the society towards the government, and to put an end to the rebelliousness of the military and radicals. But unfortunately the Aquino administration wasn't able to accomplish its objectives. First of all, peace talks brought about nothing more than temporary solutions, the abundance of communist movements remained; despite the written settlements between the new government and the army, the army never acquired complete trust from the government; the violation of human rights worsened, finally, the revised constitution still favored the elite and the Aquino constitution did not wipe the power from the Marcos supporters. (Bakker, 17 pp.0-)

Another example is the Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) II, which took place on the 17th of January 001. The primary reason for the gathering of most of the citizens during this incident was to remove the former President Joseph Estrada from his position. Let us look at the cause of why this occurrence really took place. Rumors emerged from different sections of the society suspected him for corrupting the whole nation, and having a big role in heading the scams that were going on during his reign as president. Both these rumors and statistics brought about the trial for his impeachment. The trial gave suspicion to the people by showing the possibility of Estrada in paying all his Senators under him to do everything they can to prove him not guilty. Suspicion of the people, both lay and elite, brought about chaos and therefore began the EDSA II. Therefore, the people lost their trust from the President which generally initiated the elite to influence a few of the low class to the ousting of Estrada in unity with them.

The administration of Estrada was handed down to his Vice president, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo whose goals however, were not in whole accordance to the ousting of Estrada. She mostly continued the goals of Ramos' administration instead of Estrada's. Being an economist, she wanted to somewhat concentrate on bringing the economy upward, but her intentions weren't meant because of the chaos that has been going on in the world and in our own country. She also wanted to obtain stability among the citizens, but seeing the continuous threats and terrorism from rebellious groups it is easy for us to see that this objective of hers might never be achieved. She may have provided the Filipino citizens with solutions to these problems, yet it is obvious that the solution is just temporary that it would never be used by the succeeding president.

In conclusion to this argument, the Philippines has too little democracy because the people don't really understand what democracy is and what it should be. Even most of the former and present government officials, and the citizens do not understand what should be done for the country to be a democratic nation. There is no official fact that the officials do not know the exact meaning of democracy, or that they are just acting as if they truly understand what the nation should be doing in order for Filipinos to be democratic. It is obvious, however, that these officials are wise and intellectual for they were able to persuade the people to put them in their desired positions. What is not right, though, is that these officials are using there power of persuasion to convince the people that democracy is when they stand together against an official, instead of addressing them that democracy is actually when they control the government.

The examples of both People Powers are the best examples that show how Filipinos perceive democracy. For them, standing together against a government official is democratic; they never took time to realize what would happen to the nation once an official is replaced. In my opinion, democracy should be, if against an official, well thought about, but if the problem with the official is very insignificant, then the people does not need to rally but just needs to let the official realize what he should do for the better of the nation. The people, therefore, should never take for granted the petty mistakes of an official, for this simply shows how we take care of our nation as well. The people should also, always be reminded that they were the ones who placed the officials in their rightful positions, as a result, they should be responsible for what they have decided upon.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Agoncillo, Teodoro (10). History of the Filipino people. Quezon City Garotech

Publishing.

Bakker, Jan W. (17). The Philippines justice system. Netherlands Leiden University.

Hardin, Russell (1). Liberalism, constitutional, and democracy. New York Oxford

University Press, Inc.

Schumpeter, Joseph A. (176). Capitalism, socialism and democracy. New York

George Allen & Unwin, Inc.

Other sources

(1-15). Microsoft® Encarta® 6 Encyclopedia. Microsoft Corporation Funk &

Wagnalls Corporation.

(001). http//www.worldsocialist-cwi.org/index.html?/eng/001/014.html. Accessed

on August 11, 00

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Craft as Art

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Craft as Art

Are we regressing? We as humans in a society consumed by bigger, better, faster, stronger more powerful things have finally realised we are losing what has made us human in the first place- what makes us, us and the personalised human touch.

Craft is emerging no longer with the stigma of just being something bored, uneducated housewives just sat around doing in quilting bees, knitting circles and craft corners while their husbands in the role of the breadwinner brought home the bacon.

But at what cost are we discovering this lost art form? Unfortunately for us, we have become unskilled and all the skills of knitting, sewing, crocheting which were for people of our Grandmother's generation second nature. Who can wistfully remember our Granny sitting there teaching us how to knit while patiently telling us that, "one day you will be able to make a nice sweater, dear," while secretly thinking that it would be so much easier to head off to the shops and buy a better one already made, off the rack.

Custom Essays on Craft as Art

When we see our friends wearing what they have discovered their mother's wardrobes full of one-off vintage pieces we wish that we too could own a piece of individuality and uniqueness. We can see this desire to create every day and more and more people are gradually becoming inspired to create something by hand. Something hand made by themselves, which they can proudly say, when asked "I made it myself". This can clearly be seen with the popularity of television programs such as 'Better Homes and Garden's' with the likes of People such as Tonia Todman making "fabulous wall hangings you can make from bits around the house in less that hours." Who doesn't feel that they too can take a break from a world increasingly obsessed with the ready made and disposable objects with planned obsolescence.

The increasing emergence and popularity of Craft's fairs exemplify the human need for the humanness in our everyday lives. Unfortunately for us, this desire comes at a price and the cost of someone's time, dedication, and effort is reflected in what seems to be ridiculously hight prices. It's even harder to comprehend now, the cost of something which has it's own character when we know too well, that we will be buying something our Grandmother's would have just made anyway.

Diana Wood Conroy's article, 'Curating Textiles Tradition as Transgression.' Reminds us that familiar Western archetypes of Art/ Craft must be continually given attention to. She recognises that there is a lot of polarisation with the meanings of the word "Art" and the meaning of the word "Craft". Her article shows us that these too practices are not the far cry from the other as it may originally seem.

Cross disciplining practice across media & into technology involves a theorising of practice, while recognising differences in histories & approaches among studio disciplines.

Both Art and Crafts people have a belief in an intuitive basis for artistic inspiration.

Students of textiles, like those of painting produced work that holds attention from a conceptual understanding & sensitivity to materials and structures. The combining significant concept & developed techniques in the textile medium. Yes, it is true that crafts such as textiles derive from very old tradition but like wise so does painting, so does sculpture. The crafts field became nuanced, differences of philosophical approach, ideology and practice.

The term craft once clearly defined in the 170's 'Craft Revolution', now faceted into myriad positionings blurring divisions between process, function and concept. Craft is commonly identified with the body and thus perceived as non-individual and non-conceptual. While art is associated with the mind & the conceptual with the 'one-off' artwork in a highly individual categorisation of the experience.

Groupings reflect our history, & continue to influence unconscious assumptions.

Craft plays the 'feminine' role to the 'masculine' art world. The strategies of visual art theory- feminist, post-structural & semiotic approaches are equally applicable to the crafts. Current theory suggests that the multiple, the corporeal, the feminine, histories of medium and materiality- all trad. Characteristics of craft-equal relevance to cutting edge art.

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The crafts practice covers a multiplicity of perspectives, just as art practice encompasses innumerable styles & intentions. The is increased importance of maintaining some forum for the integration of conceptual sophistication allied with developed craft skills. Using Craft histories to engage in issues of subversion has benefited many notable visual artists who carefully avoid and contextualisation with crafts.

To make textiles that copy visual art in order to attain a de-skilled style seemed to undermine the integrity of the craft process. Rather than craft media being 'appropriated by artists identifying as non-craft artists in major exhibitions, or working within a visual arts style, craft artists should participate fully in their own traditions and histories. When it boils down to it, the strength of craft is craft and craft may give a different resonance and depth to the Australian Art world as a whole.

Likewise Sue Rowley's article, 'Parables of Criticism.' Highlights what we are just beginning to realise the stigma attached to craft, that it is merely an inferior form of art. Art belongs in the museums and galleries while craft belongs in schoolyard fetes and craft markets.

The criticism about art, craft literature & culture should not be seen by artists as a kind of service industry. Many crafts practitioners & writers have a strong sense of belonging to a relatively small community that places high value on cohesiveness.

Don't know each other face to face but there is a strong sense of interrelatedness and shared experiences. This sense of belonging to something which is part of a larger scale experience is incredibly exhilarating.

The "Privatisation" of criticism increasingly shows the veiling of crafts from public address. Sue Rowley states that the exemption of art from criticism is also an exclusion from public intellectual life. In craft communities, fear of ostracism & the partiality of advocacy functions to inhibit the development of critical insight into the crafts at a time when the practice of craft could be enhanced by its inclusion in public intellectual life in Australia.

A great deal of the emerging crafts writing seems to engage in story telling as a mode of interrogation. Not that this is a particularly bad thing, in fact it is quite the opposite the fact that craft shares kinship with folk tales heightens its importance. In Rowley's article she proves this by drawing the parallels between two folk fairy tales, 'Snow white & the Seven Dwarfs' and 'The Emperor's New Clothes'.

Robert Nelson's article, 'Towards a Typology of Small Objects' shows us how people are facing the questions of the viability, the integrity, the destiny of craft. Like Sue Rowley, Robert Nelson is concerned with the positioning of craft in a world consumed with the value of art. He realises that we are lacking in current debates of craft and this is good typology- typology being the method of classifying things made. He suggests that to categorise is to conceptualise and if there is no attempt to describe order, there is no chaos theory, no means of handling, and no critique.

Crafts people frequently begin with their material and let their ideas gel subsequently.

But if design becomes expressive because it looks like it wants to do something- it speaks a language of gesture. It must convey purpose and must therefore suggest a reason for being beyond itself. Everything is for something else. All things made by the human hand (with the possible exception of art) are for something else.

In very recent times painting and sculpture have sealed themselves off from the rest of the world in a museum of conceit. There is a potent motif of interdependence in all things made, an interdependence which is the context of meaning and purpose for each thing. We have to talk of the destiny of objects as though it is nothing but the context which each object makes for each other object.

Items which serve other objects before serving humans are more instrumental than those which serve us directly. We automatically become disgusted if objects and their functions are confused. Nelson shows us the very practical example of if we were to see someone drinking straight from the jug. If we were to see this, we would feel uncomfortable because the jug is not there to drink from, the glass is there to drink from. Therefore, the blurring between the purposes of everyday things make us suspicious of the unfamiliar.

Craft is a powerful purchase on daily life and its history of passionate debate, offers the humanities the ideal context for theory, for examining the way we fundamentally conceive the world.

Kylie Winkworth's article (complete with the different photographs of examples of tea cosies), 'Making Things,' Describes to us that the word craft has been smeared over a whole culture of making things, regardless of distinctions between different types of practice, different levels of skill and different motivations behind the making of things.

Craft is a term used in an indiscriminate application to work of every description- from the mundane and routine to the expert and the original. The parallels between women's crafts of the nineteenth century and recreational crafts today are striking and suggest a continuous culture of crafts practice. The traditional gender roles are explicit textiles and the domestic sphere are for women. While metal and wood belong in the 'man's place' in the shed or garage.

From the vantage point of the craft artist, the work reads as sentimental and lacking in originality, design quality and any level of real skill or invention. The vitality of popular crafts indicates a healthy desire for handmade object and for the experience of making things. The urge to make things is a fundamental point of connection between amateur and professional arts practice.

Anne Brennan and Nola Anderson, 'An exploration of memory, theory and making'.

Show us the very powerful analogy of the Wedding Ring, and like Robert Nelson's article describe what happens when objects are used for a purpose which is different than the purpose it was originally made for. They state that objects should not be used for any other purpose than which it has been made.

We have to reinvent ways of talking about the crafts and materials, processes, functions, ornament, symbol and medium histories, in order to salvage an awareness of the personal richness that an object embodies. Craft is more to do with the way of living than with the way of constructing theories.

In the existing system we separate the artist from the art. We insist that the art object alone can embody all meaning and that it alone bears the responsibility for value.

The art object is autonomous and makes its own rules of progression. Ie. one style or period supersedes another. When this is applied to crafts we divorce these objects from those things which have breathed meaning into them, that is the artists life & the way the object participates in our lives.

Please note that this sample paper on Craft as Art is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Craft as Art, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Craft as Art will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION AND THE DIRECT METHODS

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INTRODUCTION

First of all I want to give a brief history of what language teaching was through the nineteenth century where reading comprehension and writing instead of speaking and listening were in fashion ; just following the classical languages as a model to be followed.

Very few schools taught foreign languages, and in general the learning of foreign languages was more in a private way. It was only by 100 that most secondary schools incorporated one or more of their major European languages.Order Custom Essay on THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION AND THE DIRECT METHODS

By the middle of the century many European countries came into closer and more frequent commercial relations, so it was created the necessity to learn foreign languages according to practical needs and interests.

Due to all these, some teachers, specially from Germany and France, began to think on how to create methods that could help to learn foreign languages in the easiest way.

As market among European countries improved, writers like Ahn and Ollendorff, had an enormous success with their books, unless they were not used in schools because they were too easy and too practical.

The demand for utilitarian language teaching increased specially in Germany, and textbooks and methods by Germans got into use.

This approach to foreign language teaching, became known as the Grammar Translation Method in which the immediate aim was for the student to apply the given rules by means of appropriate exercises in order to translate sentences in a mechanical way.

There were some leading exponents like J. Seidenstucker. K. Plotz, H. Ollendorff, J. Meidinger, etc. Grammar Translation dominated European and foreign language teaching from 1840s to the 140s, and in a certain way it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world today.

As this method created frustration in students, in the mid and late 1th century opposition to the Grammar Translation Method developed, and foundations for new ways of teaching languages raised with the name of the Reform Movement.

This movement created a demand for oral proficiency, so some specialists turned their attention to the way modern languages were taught in secondary schools.

France was well represented with writers like Jacotot, Marcel, and Gouin ; England was represented by Prendergast whose ideas, based on children's observations, were later developed in the 0th century by men like Palmer and West.

Parallel to the reformers' ideas, was an interests in developing principles for language teaching in a naturalistic way and all this led to the development of what was known as the Direct Method, which became widely known in the United States through its use by Sauveur and M. Berlitz in commercial language schools.

This method required teachers who were native speakers and it was largely dependent on the teacher's skill, rather than on a textbook.

THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD

This method was called the grammar school method, because it was developed for use in secondary school.

The method did not attempt to teach languages by grammar and translation, its real motivation was reformist ; due to that the traditional scholastic approach of the time was individual, and had been to acquire a reading knowledge of foreign languages by studying classical grammar and applying it to the interpretation of texts in new languages with the use of a dictionary.

As these were self-study methods, that were not appropriate for group-teaching, the grammar-translation method, was an attempt to adapt these traditions to the requirements of schools but preserving the framework of grammar and translation due that they were already familiar to both teachers and students from their classical studies.

Its principal aim was to make language learning easier by the replacement of the traditional texts by sentences that could make grammar easier and clearer.

Grammar-translation textbooks were graded and presented new grammar points in organized sequence and with appropriate examples and sentences that were simpler than the traditional books from reputable authors.

The principal characteristics of the Grammar-Translation Method were

1-The goal was to learn a language in order to read its literature or benefit from mental discipline.

-Reading and writing were major focus.

-Vocabulary based on the reading texts.

4-The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice.

5-Students are expected to attain high standards in translation due

to moral value and increasing written examinations.

6-The students' native language is the medium of instruction.

7-Grammar is taught deductively.

(Richard & Rodgers. 186. Pag. )

There were some contrasts between patterns of change in England and Germany, partly because Germany was considered the model of advanced educational thought at the time due to its state-run system, and England, trying to bring some order into the chaos of middle class education and maintaining academic standards, as well as trying to avoid state involvement in anything like the Prussian model, established in 1850 a system of public examinations controlled by the universities in order to lever modern languages on to the secondary curriculum so as to determine both the content of the language and the methodological principles of the teacher responsible for preparing children to take them.

Approaches were made to Oxford in 1857 and then to Cambridge, establishing a system known as Oxford and Cambridge Local Examinations in 158, working in separate ways.

Later on, Cambridge established the Overseas Examinations in the 1860s, that eventually led to a famous world-wide service. The Locals increased the status of both modern languages and English by including them on the curriculum alongside de classical languages.

There was a split among the universities and the 'great" schools Eaton and Harrow creating a separate examinations board ; due to that, the schools complained that the universities did not teach modern subjects ; so modern languages and English lost academic prestige though their association with the Locals and social prestige by their exclusion from the 'best' schools ; hence the universities came round to the notion of instituting modern language degrees, requiring in this way academic respectability from the modern languages and from the late 1th century reformers who put much attention to the universities and the examination system. (Howatt A.P. 184)

Sweet and Widgery alleged that present methods need a change and stated that reform had to come from above, from the university system.

All this forced modern language teachers and text book writers to ape the methods of the classics. French has to be made as demanding as Latin, and German as intellectually disciplined as Greek.

Germany was more open to reforming influences, and one reason was the structure of its state-run education system. French was included as a compulsory subject but English was optional and rarely taught.

The industrialization of the second half of the 1th century created a new class of language learner, one that had not followed an academic grammar school education and therefore could not be expected to learn foreign languages by traditional methods.

A new approach was needed to suit this particular circumstances and it eventually emerged in the form of ' direct' methods which required no knowledge of grammar at all.

Ahn and Ollendoff included grammar in their courses but in a rationed way of about one or two new rules per lesson, reason which explains why some teachers and reviewers considered them lightweight with lack of improvement and in the need of improvement. (Howatt. A. P . 184)

Toward the mid -1th century Europeans demanded for oral proficiency in foreign languages. Initially this created a market of conversation and phrase books intended for private study, but teaching specialists turned their attention to the way modern languages were taught in secondary schools.

The Frenchman C. Marcel (17- 186) referred to child language learning, as a model for language teaching ; proposed that reading be taught before other skills and propose to locate language teaching within a broader educational framework. The Englishman T. Prendergast (1806-1886) was one of the first to record the observation that children use contextual and situational cues to interpret utterances and that they use memorized phrases and routines in speaking. (Richards & Rodgers. 186). He proposed that learners be taught the most basic structural patterns occurring in the language.

The Frenchman F. Gouin (181- 186) developed an approach to teaching a foreign language based on his observations of children's use of language. (Richards & Rodgers 186). His method used situations and themes as ways of organizing and presenting oral language.

All these specialists were writing at the time when there were no organizational structure in the language teaching profession in the form of professional associations journals and conferences to enable new ideas to develop into an educational movement.(Richard & Rodgers. 186. Pag.6)

In 186 was founded the International Phonetic Association and its International Phonetic Alphabet. One of its goals was to improve the teaching of modern languages.

It advocated

1-The study of spoken language.

-Phonetic training in order to establish good pronunciation habits.

-The use of conversation text and dialogues.

4-An inductive approach to the teaching of grammar.

5-Establishing associations with the target language rather than with

the mother tongue. . (Richards & Rodgers. Pag. 7)

Vietor and Sweet and other reformers shared many beliefs about basic approaches to teaching, but differed considerably in the specific procedures

Parallel to the ideas put forward by members of the reform movement was an interest in developing principles for language teaching out of naturalistic principles of language learning that were termed Natural Methods and that led to the development of the Direct Method.

THE DIRECT METHOD.

Attempts have been made to make second language learning more like first language learning ; one of them was Montaigne in the 16th century who described how his father trained his servants in order to speak in Latin to him so that he could learn Latin in the natural way. In the 1th century was L. Sauveur(186-107) who employed questions as a way of presenting and eliciting language in the target language. He argued that foreign language could be taught without translation or the use of the learner's native tongue.

According to the German F. Franke, a language could be best taught by using it actively in the classroom. Teachers must encourage direct and spontaneous use of the foreign language in the classroom. (Richards & Rodgers. Pag. )

These principles provided the foundations of the Direct Method, which is the most widely known of the natural methods.

It was introduced and officially approved in France and Germany at the turn of the century and became widely known in the United States through its use by Sauveur and Maximilian Berlitz in successful commercial language schools.

In general it stood for the following principles

-Classroom instruction in the target language.

-Only everyday vocabulary and sentences.

-Oral communication in a graded progression.

-Grammar taught inductively.

-New teaching points introduced orally.

-Concrete vocabulary through demonstrations and the abstract through association of ideas.

-Speech and listening comprehension.

-Correct pronunciation and grammar. (Richards & Rodgers. Pag. 10)

This method was quite successful in private language schools of the Berlitz chain. The use of native speaking teachers was the norm ; its method was difficult to implement in public secondary school education. It lacked a rigorous basis in applied linguistic theory so it was criticized by the proponents of the Reform Movement.

Teachers were required to great lengths to avoid using the native language, when sometimes a simple explanation in the student's native tongue would have been more efficient to comprehension.

By 10 this method in noncommercial schools in Europe declined. In France and Germany was modified through introduction of some grammar aspects. A study held in 1 concluded that no single method could guarantee successful results.

PHYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS

It is well known that since interest in the learning of modern languages began, specialists and linguists are always trying to find ways on how to learn a second language in the most effective and easiest way ; methods, theories and methodologies are everyday being tried in order to facilitate this matter that has different grades of difficulty in each learner, but from my own point of view, it is a matter that we as teachers and researchers must work with, trying to give our best, so as to help the increasing number of learners that are and are going to be under our responsibility and the confidence that they have of our work with them and their achievements.

I also consider that in some way we are still using the Grammar-Translation Method in schools, specially when the large number of students in the classroom is the matter, and the Direct Method as well, when the school's philosophy is to speak only English, ignoring our own teaching methodologies.

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Year following the war of 1812

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The years following the War of 181, also known as the "Era of Good Feelings," was considered as a time of exceptional growth and development in the United States, but it may be considered a time of evolution in American nationalism. The war of 181 was a very problematic war. States did not do their duties. The commanders and leaders were also not informed or supplied enough to keep up with the war. But what happened during this time and after is something better then victory. The war wasn't just about Britain holding land and impressing American sailors into their navy. It was also a second war for independence. It was the first war for America as a united country, and it was a small new nation against a large European empire. For the first time, we were united, not a fight for our homes and freedom, but for ideals.(The Awakening of American Nationalism, AAN).

The war of 181 began a long time before war was declared. It began right after the war of Independence. The British were not to happy that we broke away from their empire, and they soon figured out that many revolts were because we had fought and won. They taxed our merchants, and attacked our ships, but they messed up when they began to impress our sailors into their navy. They claimed that these people had "deserted" the royal navy and should be taken back. They may have been right a few times, but it has been proven that many innocent people were forced to be in the royal navy.

On June , 1807, the English frigate Leopard attacked the United States frigate Chesapeake, and took from her certain of her sailors who, the Leopard's captain claimed, were British citizens. (John K. Mahon, The War of 181) This is what made us want to go to war. Many citizens wanted war, but Jefferson, thought that there would be problems going to war with Britain, so he tried to calm the public. Congress began to prepare for war, by authorizing the construction of 0 war ships.

France and Britain, Europe's two most powerful nations, had battled almost non-stop since 17, and their war affected American trade. Hostilities began during the French Revolution (178-17), when England joined other European nations in an unsuccessful attempt to restore the French monarchy, and then continued as Britain led the efforts to stop French expansion under Napoleon I. American presidents from Washington to Madison tried to keep the United States impartial during these conflicts, but both France and Britain flagrantly disregarded the rights of neutral countries (War of 181).

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For the Americans, the problem was Britain's impressment, or the seizure of American sailors for service in the British navy. The British government claimed that it only seized subjects sailed with Americans to avoid wartime service in their own navy. the British seized anyone not just their own people, they also impressed a bunch of United States citizens,

The problem of impressment got bigger after an incident between the American naval frigate Chesapeake and a British ship, the Leopard. In June 1807 the Leopards crew demanded to board and search the Chesapeake only a few miles off the American coast and for British deserters. The Chesapeake's commander, James Barron, refused, and the Leopard opened fire. American sailors were killed and wounded during the attack, and the Chesapeake surrendered. The British then sent a party aboard and dragged four sailors from the ship. After the attack, Jefferson ordered British warships to leave American waters and demanded them to stop the impressment of American sailors. The British did make some apologies and restitution for the Chesapeake-Leopard incident, but continued to claim the right to seize American ships and inspect them for deserters. (War of 181)

Despite the problems, the U.S. Navy finally won some fights at sea, making up for some of the loses on land. A strong American squadron under Commodore John Rodgers made a sweep through the Atlantic ocean after the declaration of war. They only found one enemy ship, which escaped, but later in the year three U.S. warships were more successful.

The War of 181 was a victory. On February 0 President Madison sent a message to Congress about the treaty of peace. He congratulated the nation for the end of the war waged with the success which is the natural result of the wisdom of the legislative councils, of the patriotism of the people, of the public spirit of the militia, and of the valor of the military and naval forces of the country.

The Battle of New Orleans was fought after the two sides signed the peace treaty, it was the war's most famous battle. The navy was popular for many years after the battle, but the outcome of the Battle of Lake Champlain did not get recognized for another generation.

The principal gain for the United States was a renewed self-confidence and faith in the ability of its military to defend the nation's freedom and honor. (In the Midst of Perpetual Fetes The Making of American Nationalism,) Although no one came away from the war victorious, America saw the War of 181 as the success of the democracy. The War of 181 proved to the country that it could now protect itself from foreign threats

Many people felt a good about the country at this time. They had fought against one of the strongest empires of Europe and pretty much defeated them. They did not win, but they did not lose either. They had enough energy to get the job done, then afterwards they did not try to build a better military to start in another conflict. Nothing had been lost, but nationalism had been gained. Americans saw this time as a time for their economy to grow, and to build their own empire.

But our country showed something that was never seen before, unity. This was the first war that everyone had fought as an American. They were the first generation after the revolution that had never seen combat. Thats why so many mistakes were made, but it was also why the United States was for the first time in its history, fought together. Though some of the states like Massachusetts decided not to fight for the federal government unless their state was invaded, they still fought when they were needed.

The war debt did not matter to most of the people. Though it did put America in a billion-dollar debt, with the exploding market it would be paid off in no time. Americans wanted to build a better nation, and most were together in trying to do that. They realized that being divided made them weak during wartime and no way to win. But they also realized that they did not want to become a world power. America went into complete isolation and did not come out of it until after the Spanish-American war.

Americans began to move west during this time. They did not want to be kept in their small towns. They wanted their own farm large enough to make them rich. More problems were made with the Indians. Many of the Indians did not want to be moved away from their land. Most were forced off, either by federal troops or just by the amount of people that were moving to there land.

We did not have many possessions overseas, and we did not want to conquer any established nation. We were an empire for democracy and an empire of wealth. There has been many empires come and go, fail and succeed. But no one has ever had the merchants make the empire. No one had seen a democracy build such a vast empire of traders and merchants since the time of Rome. Truly, this was an accomplishment to be proud of. (This Sacred Trust American Nationality.)

It is impossible to deny that the war of 181 had a lot of impacts on our nation. The nation grew and changed in a way that most Americans back then could not even think of. Weather they liked it or not, they all were alike in one way or another. The United States had changed into a better country; it could no longer be denied its goals. People had become proud of the nation, and that was the most important step in keeping together. If no one believed in a nation, how could it survive?

Commager, Henry Steele. Jefferson, Nationalism, and the Enlightenment. New

York G. Braziller, 175.

George Dangerfield. The Awakening of American Nationalism; New York, Harper and Row, Copywrite 165.

John K. Mahon. The War of 181; New York, Da Capo Press,. Copywrite 17.

Nagel, Paul C. This Sacred Trust American Nationality, 178-188. New

York Oxford University Press, 171.

Waldstreicher, David. In the Midst of Perpetual Fetes The Making of

American Nationalism, 1776-180. Chapel Hill University of North Carolina

Press, 17.

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Why Alfred Hitchcok's "Psycho" shook the world

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Why Alfred Hitchcock's "Psycho" shook the world

Alfred Hitchcock's "Psycho" is a film that "changed the world" first screened on 16th June, 160, in New York City, it achieved an immediate success. People queued for very many hours to see "Psycho's" first showings. Their enthusiastic word of mouth recommendations gave the film instant and positive publicity.

Alfred Hitchcock introduced new subjects into the film industry, which before "Psycho" had been avoided by filmmakers under government censorship and pressure. "Psycho" stretched many film boundaries and heavily influences today's film industry. For instance, "Psycho" used black humour so manipulating many millions who watched and continued watching "Psycho" into fear and loathing, which the horror movies that Boris Karloff starred in could not equal. Boris Karloff's mummy as a figure of fear does not begin to compare with Norman Bates. Thus "Psycho" marks a significant development in movies which entertained audiences by scaring them - and so changed the world.

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I think the fact that Norman Bates, at first sight, seems normal, unlike the old horror movies' mummies, monsters, mad scientists and vampires, makes Norman's warped cruelty seem so wrong and horrible. But, at the same time Norman's weird mentality seems to reflect aspects of today's dangerous, violent world in ways beyond the reach of the early 0th century horror movies. These films have been spoofed in the "Rocky Horror Show" and "Scary Movie" but I don't think filmmakers would find it quite so easy to spoof "Psycho". The world has not yet changed so much that filmmakers might lightly guy or ridicule Norman Bates.

"Psycho" breaks taboos since Norman's mother features as a force for evil not good her effect on his character lasts beyond death. Her corpse lies in state in a perfectly organised room. And, when Norman kills Marion Crane and Milton Abrogast he does so dressed as his mother. This frightening image of a frantic and murderous mother contrasts with wholesome comforting American mother figures that audiences expected. This feature, too, altered the world.

The dead Mrs Bates creates a frightening image of a woman controlling a male (her son Norman) even beyond the grave. I see Marion not only as an independent woman who has the courage and determination to rob her employer but also one so enterprising as to escape into the unknown with the money. In pre- "Psycho" movies men rather than women committed crime. Seeing women from this point of view represents a significant change. Ironically, I think Hitchcock intended audiences to view Mrs Bates, as she seemed in Norman's thoughts, regarding the beautiful Marion as a rival for Norman's affections. The fact that Norman does not plunder Marion's belongings, he carelessly chucks the money out, underscores the fact that Norman murdered Marion for very unusual, uncanny motives. This psychological delving not only justifies the movie's title but takes audiences into depths of the human mind not previously achieved; so, Hitchcock changed the world of movies for ever through "Psycho's" success.

Hitchcock achieved these revolutionary effects by using very clever techniques. For instance music heightens tension particularly in Norman's killing of Marion. Comparison of the effects created by this scene without sound track and with the music, produced very strong contrasts. I noticed the build up of tension in my classmates' reactions to the scene with music, compared to the much less suspenseful atmosphere when we watched the scene without the sound track. Clever camera work, especially involving mirrors such as when Marion packs her bags, examines the money in the car lot's lavatory and especially when she checks in to the Bates' Motel makes the audience imagine Marion's murder in the shower room with its savage image of flashing knives and the frenzied screaming and the thick slowly flowing blood must have made millions of stomachs sink in terror. Such intense audience reaction showed how "Psycho" changed the world.

I thoroughly enjoyed deconstructing "Psycho" particularly because such analysis made me understand reasons for my reactions as well as appreciating Alfred Hitchcock's artistry as a significant film director.

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Money

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Money

Money was one arguably the most important invention for development to take place. Money has been independently invented at one time or another in each important civilization in the history of the world. There is also remarkable similarity in how the concept of money has evolved in different times in history and in different parts of the world.

Historically, money has usually gone through four stages. In the first stage, money is made of a rare material, and the value of the money is determined by the amount of the material it contains. In the second stage, money is made of another material, such as paper, with no inherent value but can be exchanged into the physical stuff. In the third stage, money cannot be exchanged into anything physical, but its value is determined by law or custom. In the fourth and last stage, inflation increases to the point that money becomes virtually worthless.

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Physical Money

Physical money has historically come into existence to facilitate trade. In most cases some form of metallic money has been used, but there are also other examples, where shells, or even large stones (on an isolated island) have been used as money. Oil has been proposed by the great Soros. Gold and silver has been used in most of world, but other metals have occasionally been used. Bronze was the basis of the monetary system in early Roman times. Copper has also been used at times, for example in Spain and Sweden. In many cases, combinations have been used, with fixed exchange rates between different metals. Those fixed exchange rates have usually broken down as the relative value of the metals has moved due to changes in supply or demand.

Coins are the basis of almost every metallic monetary system. A coin in a physical money system is a piece of metal with a stamp. The stamp is a guarantee that the metallic weight and content is right. It also makes all coins of the same sort equal. This may not seem like such a big deal today, but it once was a very important invention. Previously, metals had to be weighed in order to determine their value, and that made trade more difficult. In most cases, by the way, coins in metallic standards were named after the weight of metal they contained.

A consequence of the invention of money was that it introduced a unit of account. This was important to facilitate credit. Once money was generally accepted, credit institutions soon developed, that allowed people to borrow against real estate or other properties. The evolution of credit is something that has gone hand in hand with the evolution of money.

Bank Notes and Fractional Reserve Systems

The origin of banking was a place where you could leave your coins for safekeeping or lend it for interest. In exchange you would get an IOU. These IOUs became standardized and non-personal and would circulate much like an alternative currency. The borrowers soon discovered that as the IOUs circulated, they were not all redeemed. Thus it was not necessary to keep enough specie (i.e. coins) to be able to pay all outstanding debt. In some cases, the issuer of the IOUs where originally governments, but usually they where private banks or trading houses.

The system of IOUs often evolved into formal paper bills, that could be redeemed into physical metal. In different times and places, the evolvement of paper money has been different. In certain cases, the IOU stage has been skipped entirely while in other, it has lasted for a long time.

One of the most important consequences of the introduction of bank notes backed by physical money is that it made it possible to drastically increase the supply of money. This facilitated increasing amounts of credit. As long as money had been made of physical metal, the amount of money was limited by the amount of metal in circulation. In the long run, the amount of metal available for coins could change with new discoveries and with changing amounts of metal used for other purposes, but for the short term, the amount of money available was virtually fixed. However, the demand for money would change making the value of money fluctuate.

The classic example of changing demand for money is harvest time in the 1th century America, when farmers would have to borrow money to pay temporary workers. This was, however, less of a problem in older times. Then, times of war were the times of increasing demand for money.

The availability of credit also enabled more speculative businesses than before. Foreign trade, something that was often very risky, is the perfect example. At certain times in history, credit financed trade expeditions would flourish. At other times, when credit was not readily available, foreign trade was effectively monopolized by established trading houses.

In most cases the paper money, fractional reserve system has eventually been monopolized by the government, as it has been a very lucrative business. Once the government has control over the bank notes, it usually does not take long before the monetary system evolves into the next stage.

Fiat Money

In a fiat money system, the money is not backed by a physical commodity. Instead, the only thing that gives the money value is its relative scarcity, and the fact that people seem to want it. Why people want fiat currency has been the subject of much debate. If you were an alien, visiting the earth for the first time, you would certainly be amazed at how the earthlings seem to prize little pieces of paper with paint on them.

One idea to explain the value of fiat money is debt. If you are in debt, you have no alternative but to try to obtain the pieces of paper in order to repay your debt, and if the paper is scarce, you have to compete for it. Interestingly, indebtedness seem to go hand in hand with fiat money, but that is no conclusive evidence for this theory.

Another way to explain the want for money is that people got used to paper money in the fractional reserve system. Once the metallic backing was removed, people continued to use money as they had become accustomed to. One argument for this thesis is that the fiat money systems that have worked best historically, are the ones where the physical backing was removed slowly and secretly.

A third way to explain the value of fiat money is that it is valuable because the government says so. This theory has often been tested in practice, and it can be rejected with confidence. Nevertheless, governments from time to time still try to inject value into paper by law and price control. This never works in the long run, and usually lead quickly to the next step, hyperinflation.

Although a fiat monetary system often evolves out of a fractional reserve system, this is not always the case. Sometimes the fractional reserve period has been skipped altogether. The most well known example is probably the Roman empire, where the silver based metallic system gradually evolved into a fiat monetary system based on token coins. The silver content in coins was slowly lowered, until coins consisted almost entirely of tin. This took place over a period of centuries, and that is probably the longest lasting fiat monetary system in the history of the world.

In a fractional reserve system, the amount of money that can be created is still limited by the amount of metal available, but in a fiat monetary system, there is no such physical restrain on the amount of money that can be created. This also allows unlimited credit creation. Initially, a rapid growth in the availability of credit is often mistaken for economic growth, as spending and business profits grow and frequently there is a rapid growth in equity prices. In the long run, however, the economy tends to suffer much more by the following contraction than it gained from the expansion in credit.

In most cases, a fiat monetary system comes into existence as a result of excessive public debt. When the government is unable to repay all its debt in gold or silver, the temptation to remove pysical backing rather than to default becomes irresistible. This was the case in 18th century France during the Law scheme, as well as in the 70s in the US, when Nixon removed the last link between the dollar and gold.

Hyperinflation

Hyperinflation is more or less by definition the terminal stage of any fiat currency. In hyperinflation money loses most of its value practically overnight. Hyperinflation is often the result of increasing regular inflation to the point where all confidence in money is lost, but there can also be other immediate causes. It is important to understand that in a fiat monetary system, the value of money is based on confidence, and once that confidence is gone, money irreversibly becomes worthless, regardless of its scarcity.

It is often argued that all fiat money eventually will become worthless. This has certainly been the case in the past. On the other hand it could also be argued that the current fiat monetary systems have not led to hyperinflation, and it seems unlikely that they will. It is not a very convincing argument, though, as hyperinflation never seems likely until it is well underway. Looking at the past, there is certainly a lot of evidence that all fiat money will eventually lose its value.

Please note that this sample paper on Money is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Money, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Money will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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