Utilitarianism

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Utilitarianism Vanessa Harris

1.a) What is Utilitarianism?

The dictionary definition of Utilitarianism is 'The doctrine that the greatest happiness of the greatest number should be the guiding principal of conduct.' When making a moral decision, we should look at the outcome of an action. Whatever brings the greatest happiness to the most people is the morally 'right' decision. It is a consequentialist principal where the majority rules. It is also relative as each situation is looked at differently and will have a different outcome. Utilitarianism is known as the theory of utility. The meaning of utility is usefulness. Each action is judged by its usefulness in bringing about desired consequences. The word utility was first used to describe a group of social reformers. They attempted to make laws and practices of use-useful to people.

It was Scottish Philosopher David Hume (1711-76) who introduced utility into ethics. However, he was not viewed as a Utilitarian. The well known phrase associated with Utilitarianism was produced by Francis Hutcheson. He saidWrite my Essay on Utilitarianism

"The nation is best which produces the greatest happiness for

the greatest numbers, and that worst which in like manner

occasions misery."

This is the basis of Utilitarianism yet, like Hume, Hutcheson was also not regarded as a Utilitarian.

One of the main exponents of Utilitarianism is Jeremy Bentham. He was an English philosopher who was particularly concerned with social conditions of his time. Oxford University saw him graduate at just 16 and become a barrister. He was responsible for the reforms of prisons, and education, influenced by the French and American Revolutions. Bentham, a strong atheist who was very much opposed to the monarchy wrote a book in 178 named 'The principles of Morals and Legislation'. He believed that all people should be treated equally and what is right for society relies on what makes the individual happy. Happiness is determined in terms of pleasure.

Bentham was a hedonist - pleasure seeker. His aim was to pursue pleasure and avoid pain. Pleasure is the sole good or intrinsically good, and pain is the soul evil or intrinsically evil.

"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters,

pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as

well as to determine what we shall do."

The intent of this was to maximise pleasure. An action is morally right if it generates the greatest pleasure for the majority and the least pain. This idea of pleasure and pain is known as the Hedonic Principal. Bentham said that if you wanted to find out which of your actions would bring about the greatest happiness, then you could measure pleasure. The quantity of pleasure can be measured according to Bentham using the Hedonic Calculus. The following criteria are used for measuring pleasure duration, intensity, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent. It does not matter if an action goes against the law, at least the result will be maximum pleasure.

One of the earliest Utilitarians to live by this principle was Epicurus he stated that "Friendship goes dancing round the world proclaiming to us all to awake

to the praises of a happy life."

He believed that a good life was one with pleasure and the absence of pain.

The other exponent of Utilitarianism is John Stuart Mill. He had a strict upbringing having very little contact with the outside world. He was around intelligent people a lot of the time as his father's friends consisted of philosophers, politicians, and economists-one being Bentham. He joined the Utilitarian Society, which met at Jeremy Bentham's house this is where Mill became interested in the theory. Two of his important books were 'On Liberty' in 185 and 'Utilitarianism' in 1861. Mill wanted to modify Bentham's theory of Utilitarianism to make it more acceptable.

There were a number of things Mill did to change Utilitarianism. Bentham suggested that all pleasures were of equal value, no pleasures were higher or lower than others. This evoked criticism so the main point he made was that of changing qualitative pleasure to quantitative pleasure. He divided pleasure into two, higher and lower. The higher pleasures were associated with the mind, and the lower pleasures with the body. Once the basic lower pleasures of the body (food, water etc.) have been reached, we can then go in search of higher, intellectually challenging pleasures. Mill said

"Better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied;

better to be a Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied."

Mill also linked Utilitarianism with Christian morality. He connected the theory with the teachings of Jesus. He said that the 'ideal perfection of utilitarian morality' was abiding by the 'Golden Rule'-'Do onto others as you have them do to you.' This made many more people accept Utilitarianism as it linked with their religion. Rules were introduced into Utilitarianism by Mill. The rules introduced were ones that generally brought about the greatest happiness for the greatest number. For example, Mill argued that society needs the principal of truthfulness as it brings the most happiness on the long run.

There are three types of Utilitarianism, Act, Rule, and Preference. Act Utilitarianism is where you look at the consequences of each individual action and asses which brings the most good. Act Utilitarians like Bentham do not see the need for rules when deciding morality, each situation is different. Rule Utilitarianism does not look at individual acts but the usefulness of a rule in morality. Mill was an Act Utilitarian and applied rules that usually bring the most good to situations. Strong Rule Utilitarians never break rules, and Weak Rule Utilitarianism keep rules in mind yet are prepared to break them if necessary. Preference Utilitarianism is where the preferences of those involved are taken into account when making the decision. The morally right thing to do in any situation is one that satisfies most people's preferences.

Utilitarianism is used in many societies, especially in politics. We encounter it every time we make a democratic vote. Our government rule by majority without the consent of the minority. Right and wrong are relative to the people involved and the things that give them pleasure. Utilitarianism is there to ensure that this pleasure is present and is maximised to its full potential.

b) What do you consider to be the strengths and weaknesses of Utilitarianism as a moral theory?

As with all moral theories, there are strengths and weaknesses. Although they are both Utilitarians, Bentham and Mill disagreed with each other on some matters. Many different people have their own interpretations of Utilitarianism and some may not agree with the strengths and weaknesses but here are some of the major arguments connected with the theory.

The major criticism of Utilitarianism is that it is extremely hard to predict the results of an action. The outcomes of all situations are hard to predict, so how can we possibly apply the rule of the greatest happiness for the greatest number if we do not know who will benefit most? It is also difficult to decide whether an outcome is morally good or bad. People have contrasting opinions on what they think is right or wrong. It really depends on the person who is making the decision, a lot of pressure is then put on that person's shoulders. How can we define happiness? The decision-maker may have a different perception on happiness than others-causing conflict. "One man's happiness is another man's pain." Without an absolute definition of happiness, it is hard to arrive at a 'right' decision.

Different decisions may result in different kinds of pleasure. Is long term or short term pleasure more valuable? For example, when deciding whether to take an ecstasy tablet at a club. Taking the pill may give you a lot of short-term pleasure, but in the long term, it may cause more harm than good. Not taking the tablet would involve fewer risks and would avoid potential pain. Even here, you cannot predict the results of your decision, as there is no way of telling the effect the ecstasy has on you until you have tried it. Bentham would look for the long-term pleasures, as this is what Hedonists seek. Also, we do not know how long the result will last for. Hume argued for this statement

"The effects of an action form part of a chain that stretches into the indefinite

future. Here is always the possibility that a very positive result of an action

may subsequently lead to very negative consequences."

How do we decide which pleasure the majority would prefer? This refers to preference Utilitarianism where the action is taken that is most favourable to the majority.

The rules of Utilitarianism allow people to do things, which are usually considered immoral. This is the idea of "The end justifies the means". If an action brings about the greatest happiness for the greatest number, then whatever needs to be done to obtain this is just. This means that even serious rules are permitted, Often requiring the breaking of the law. Utilitarianism requires people to put their personal feelings and ties aside and act on the absolute rule of the theory. Prior commitments a person may have should not influence their decision, although when decisions need to be made quickly, the reflex action would be to act on human instinct (e.g. save their family).

Bentham's theory is suggesting that good and happiness are the same thing. G.E. Moore argued that moral terms such as good cannot be defined. It is wrong to define good as happiness as this is creating the naturalistic fallacy. He believed that by defining good, important aspects or meanings are missed out, so by not defining them, they stay as they are. Utilitarianism sees that everybody's duty is to do what is best for the majority. It is allowing for the well being of the majority to rule over the minority. Just because the majority benefit, it does not mean that the action is the morally correct thing to do.

Despite all the arguments against Utilitarianism, there are some valid points for the theory. It is widely accepted, many countries run by means of democracy. Our political leaders are elected through the ballot box, the majority overriding the minority. This however does not automatically mean that they are the most suited people for the job. Utilitarianism allows people to contemplate the situation before making the decision. This time prevents people from making hasty, unethical judgements, as it encourages thought before action.

The aim of the theory is to produce happiness and pleasure. These are two desirable things as Utilitarianism says that pleasure is the sole good and pain is the soul evil.

"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign

masters-pleasure and pain"

A theory that promotes pleasure must be a good thing as most people see pleasure as desirable over pain. The intention of Utilitarianism was not to create immorality but to please to maximum number of people possible. Surely it is better for a hundred people to be happy than five. There are other ethical theories that have many rules you have to learn and abide by. Utilitarianism has one simple absolute which can be applied to all situations with a positive outcome. In times of difficulty, it eases people out of difficult situations. They cannot be blamed for making the wrong decision if they claim it was for the happiness of the majority

Prejudices the decision maker may hold are eradicated in Utilitarianism, as they have to stick to the main rule. There is some leeway for emotions in moral decision making according to Rule Utilitarianism. This strand of the theory allows respect for the rules that are created to better our society. Even these rules do not have to be kept all the time if you are a weak rule Utilitarian. Some people would see this kind of Utilitarianism more compassionate than Act Utilitarianism. One of the main strengths is that it prevents the few people that think they better the rest from dictating society. Utilitarianism acts as a good weapon for reform.

Utilitarianism is a theory that Christians can relate to. Mill brought it closer to the Christian church by introducing Rule Utilitarianism. This would be closer to the principals Jesus lived by. For example, it was against the Jewish law to work on the Sabbath but when people were in need, Jesus bent this rule and healed them. The largest connection Christianity has with Utilitarianism is the death of Jesus. He was crucified and died for the sins of mankind-sacrificing himself for the majority. However, Utilitarianism does accept evil where Christianity most certainly does not.

Philosophers like Bentham and Mill worked hard to produce a theory that could aid us make complex decisions with a desirable outcome. The different types of Utilitarianism make it easier to live by, yet it is hard not to let our emotions override our actions. Despite the many flaws in the theory, it is simple and easy to apply. Our legal and political system work by the theory and are not corrupt, so why shouldn't our morality?

Ethical Theory Mel Thompson

Foundation for the Study of Religion Libby Ahluwalia

Dialouge Robert Kirkwood

The Puzzle of Ethics Peter Vardy & Paul Grosch

A Beginner's Guide to Ideas William Raeper & Linda Smith

Concise Oxford Dictionary

Encarta Encyclopaedia

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A rose for emily

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William Faulkner's "A Rose for Emily" takes place during a period of new thoughts, ideas, and a different way of life for the United States. Faulkner draws a vivid representation of this change that the South faces during the turn of the century. He shows the destruction of the South, represented by the changes of the entire town, as well as the resistance to the changes by Emily and many of the townspeople. In addition to the characters, the house can also be seen as a symbol of the changing South, and as a parallel for Emily and her life.

"A Rose for Emily" is told from the viewpoint of an anonymous resident of the town where the story takes place. In Jefferson, Mississippi, the Grierson family was looked at very highly. Emily was raised by a strict father, which after his passing still feels irreplaceable ties towards him, like any daughter would. Because of him, her ties to the "Old South" remain with her, while holding on to the memories that she has of him. She learned from him to be proud of their old self-heritage.

Emily seems to be the product of a past era and surrounds herself with reminders of the times before. Referred to as a fallen monument in the story, Emily was once a product of what the South once stood for, and has "fallen" when she becomes subjected to death and perishes away (45). Throughout the story, she fades from the strong, effervescent person that she was, to a person in hiding, living in the shadows of her past. This feeling of hers is shown when she keeps her fathers body in the house after he has died, denying that he is even dead. She is unwilling to let go of the past, and is trying to keep hold of everything in the past that remains. All her life, she had been put on a pedestal. But after her father's passing "it got about that the house was all that was left to her, and in a way, people were glad. At last they could pity Miss Emily" (48).

After being abandoned after her father passes away, finding herself lost and alone, she finds herself a lover to whom her strict father would have forbid, for "None of the young men were quite good enough for Miss Emily" (p. 48). Homer represents a change in her life, as he represents the New South and the attitude that starts to invade the town of Jefferson. He was "a Yankee a big, dark, ready man with a big voice and eyes lighter than his face" (48). The people of the town looked on as the "Old South Emily" was seen on "Sunday afternoons driving in the yellow-wheeled buggy" with Homer (48). Eventually, she began to realize that her relationship with Homer was essentially forbidden, due to whom she was and what she was supposed to stand for. Upon the arrival of her cousins, Emily became repulsed with what she was doing, realizing that although she loved and cared for Homer, he represented everything that she was against the ruin of the family and of the Old South. With this, Homer suddenly disappeared, and this is when Emily began to disappear also. She took shelter from the world and the town of new ideas that surrounded her, and took Homer with her, by putting him to rest in the room that they shared together. "From that time on, the front door remained closed" (40).

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The house where Emily hides herself away for years has many parallels with the changing south, as well as Miss Emily herself. The house was "once white, decorated with cupolas and spires and scrolled balconies in the heavily lightsome style of the seventies, set on what had once been our most select street" (46). This house that was once the most beautiful in Jefferson, has now turned into "an eyesore among eyesores" (46). This also parallels with what Miss Emily was once like. At one point, she was standing above the rest, and now only stands out against all of the new townspeople. Times began to change and "cotton gins and auto garages" replaced the houses. Because of these new changes that came along with modernization and industrialization, Emily and her house became the last evidence that showed the refusal to the new ways, her house serving as a visible reminder of this.

The Grierson's house showed her refusal to come out of the past that she was trapped in. When the Board of Alderman arrives at Emily's house questioning about the taxes, "it smelled of dust and disuse a close, dank smell. It was furnished in heavy, leather-covered furniture" (46). When the blinds were drawn, "a faint dust rose sluggishly about their thighs, spinning with slow motes in the single sun-ray" (46). The house was filled with shadows, not only rejecting the sunlight into the house, but the light of the future as well.

Following this grave condition of the house, a similar description is given of Miss Emily. Her appearance is depicted as looking "bloated, like a body long submerged in motionless water, and of that pallid hue. Her eyes, lost in the fatty ridges of her face, looked like two small pieces of coal pressed into a lump of dough," much like the previous description of the house (46). But Emily was not always like this. In the portrait with her father, Emily is described as "a slender figure in white in the background," delicate, fresh and full of life. After her father dies, she is described "with a vague resemblance to those angels in colored church windows sort of tragic and serene" (48).

Both the house and the tenant can be seen as suffering with age and abandonment. The darkness and obscurity of the house with a "dim hall from which a stairway mounted into still more shadow" has a tie with Miss Emily herself. (46) She is a "small, fat woman in black…her skeleton small and spare" with a voice that is "dry and cold" (46, 7). After years of seclusion and a yearning to stay in the past, she becomes decayed herself, just as the house becomes. Emily's soul becomes lost in the house, which represents the past and everything she stands for. The soul of the house also becomes lost, as times change. Something that was once so beautiful and grand is now nothing more than an "eyesore."

As changes occur from the movement of the Old South to the New South, transformations are seen all over the town. Just as in the appearance of the town as they "let the contracts for paving the sidewalks" the people of the town turned to "more modern ideas" (48, 46).

At the turn of this new era, some people favored the change while others held on to the past. The town began to change, and those people that agreed with the new thoughts began to step up and realize their own self worth. The newer generation, with its more modern ideas" became the strength of the town (46). As people of the older generation started to move out of Jefferson, in came the fresh, new minds that represented the New South. Emily still felt ties to the Old South, and so continued to hide herself away in her deteriorating house. It is in that house where she slowly deteriorates as a person.

Throughout the story, several characters can be seen to symbolize the changing South that is seen during the story. These key characters still reflect on the "old" ideas before the South began to change, and as it continued to change. Although the entire town is changing before their eyes, this old generation of thoughts and ideas is still present, although it eventually fades away with time. As Daniel Bronson states in his response to this story, "Members of the Old South were very honorable, graceful, and above all, dignified. They had great respect for each other and each other's feelings" (45). These characteristic traits are shown through several characters throughout the story through actions they take for Emily, someone who saw things the same way they did.

Colonel Sartoris, a man who "fathered the edict that no Negro woman should appear on the streets without an apron" still passed on her taxes - the privilege that was given to her after her fathers passing (46). He makes up a story to defend the prior fabricated story, something that "only a man of Colonel Sartoris' generation and thought could have invented" (46). When the Board of Aldermen, of the new generation, come to her house to request her taxes, they view this situation quite differently than Colonel Sartoris did. Emily insists that his word is enough evidence, which the "new" men insist that this is not correct because their new views aren't based on "promises" or "word" but rather the law and "the books." However in the end, they too dismiss her taxes, but only due to the fact that Emily is who she is and because of the promise that Colonel Sartoris had given her.

Another character in the story that still abides by these Old South values is Judge Stevens. When a smell began to invade around Miss Emily's property, the "new" townspeople started complaining. "It was another link between the gross, teeming world and the high and mighty Grierson's" (47). Judge Stevens, being 80 years of age, belongs to the old generation of ideas, just like Emily. When a woman of the town complains of the smell, she insisted that word should be sent to her to stop the smell by asking, "Isn't there a law?" (47). Judge Stevens speaks against word of the new by saying, "Dammit…will you accuse a lady to her face of smelling bad?" (47). This Old South mindset is quite evident regarding the situation with the smell and how Judge Stevens handled it, by showing self-respect to a fellow person of his time. After all, when Emily was alive, she was "a tradition, a duty, and a care; a sort of hereditary obligation upon the town" (46).

The situation with receiving the poison at the pharmacy also reflects on the dwindling, but still present spirit of the Old South, despite the changing times. Upon her request for arsenic, the pharmacist says, "If that's what you want. But the law requires you to tell what you are going to use it for" (4). Although Emily basically insisted that this drug be given to her despite the law, the pharmacist complies with her request, even though it really is not permissible. This action by the pharmacist is typical of the values of the Old South, as he shows honor and respect for Miss Emily, realizing that this would help her.

Throughout Faulkner's "A Rose for Emily," a vivid picture is painted of the many changes that occur in the South after the Civil War. As the Old South moves out and the New South moves in, Emily refuses the changes that are occurring in Jefferson, Mississippi, which are bound to happen eventually. After years of fighting against the alterations of this era, she falls victim to it. Just as her house, the death of her father, and the townspeople, she too finally meets the same destiny. "And now Miss Emily had gone to join the representatives of those august names where they lay in the cedar-bemused cemetery" where they rest, signifying the past that Miss Emily tried for so long to hold on to (46).

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Teenage Drug Use

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Teenage Drug Use

In today's society, the common problem among teenagers is the use of drugs. Teen age years is probably one of the most challenging periods of life. It is a stage of identity versus confusion - knowing oneself compared to losing oneself. Belonging and being accepted in a group is very important and being cool as well. During these years of growing up, teenagers encounter their share of positive and negative experiences. Peer pressure, curiosity, and the availability of drugs are factors that some youthful and vulnerable teenagers have to deal with in their adolescent lives.

One of the significant reasons of teenage drug use is peer pressure, particularly from the social influences among friends, acquaintances, school, and the community. Depending on the person's experiences and choices, circumstances and consequences may vary. If a teenager's social main group is using drugs, then there may be a strong pressure due to the fact that drugs are present and can easily be offered. Also, the person might get convinced to think that there is nothing wrong with trying drugs because "everybody else is doing it." In the effect that teenagers will try drugs just to fit in the social norms, they might do it to impress their buddies to be considered "cool" as part of being in the group and gain acceptance by friends.

The issue of using drugs is everywhere in the country and around the world. It's available and accessible for anyone who knows where to get it or whom to talk to about it. Interest will develop in a matter of time. For instance, if one teenager hears a personal drug experience from another student in the school, the person may become curious and try to have a connection. Most teenagers today would believe that the first use of drugs is safe. Although there is no instant addiction with the first try, young persons can tend to experiment further and in a matter of time, anyone can have the euphoric effects of the drugs and may keep seeking it in order to function adequately. The accessibility of the drugs and the curiosity and experimentation of the person are high risk factors that can result in a drug addiction among teenagers.

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Because of the chemical changes in the brain that most drugs can create, as well as environmental influences, one of the most devastating side effects of addiction is depression. Using heavy and very highly addictive drugs such as heroin, cocaine, and opium will cause sudden mood changes and unusual flares of temper from the effects in the brain, deterioration in the immune system, and nervous breakdowns from the changes in the heart rate, and among other side effects. Drug addiction can also change a person's social life, running into conflicts with family and friends, and resulting in a desire for isolation. This will create more problems, limiting the person's social support and the burden of financial strain that leads a teen to do anything to obtain money to continue getting drugs.

When things become out of control and a stage of serious hopelessness, problems may seem inescapable, in other words "hitting rock bottom." According to a previous study, persons who are feeling hopeless and lonely with no prospects for improvement may lead to depression, which can further lead to attempted suicide. Many studies have found that drugs are a contributing factor to suicide because drugs can inhibit or impair judgment; thereby, affecting the brain and a person's thinking.

In short, the cause of using drugs can have a great effect on the person and in the society. Depression and suicide, mainly from substance abuse, are now the common problems among the younger population. Teenagers need to be educated about substance abuse, such as drug addiction to create awareness among them and to help them make better choices in their lives. There are many non-profitable organizations that can help teenagers to cope with drug abuse. There are telephone help lines, community services, and individual counseling that can give information and they are available in almost every educational institution. There is help available to anyone who seeks it.

Please note that this sample paper on Teenage Drug Use is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Teenage Drug Use, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Teenage Drug Use will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Being an Outsider

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Audre Lorde was an outsider in more ways than one in the society she was living in and chose to write about. From the time she was four, her characteristics and outer appearances held qualities which enhanced this outsider status. I feel she relished the fact that she was an outsider and was able to write on it, including being able to edit her story to make her appear stronger and wiser for having played this crucial role in society. There are minor and major factors that lead Lorde to view herself as an outsider.

One of the minor factors in Lorde's life that show her outsider status is her family. Lorde knows that she is very different from those around her when looking at her family. She sees the color of the skins of her mother, father, and sisters, as well as her own color and notices right away that her mother could pass for a white woman. Even though Lorde never fully understands why her mother was so hard on her, I feel that this was one of the main contributors to her knowing and first understanding her outsider status. Lorde looks more like her father, but is never around him much. Her dark color gives rise to her feelings of inadequacy and her mother's treatment of her made her always feel inferior.

Her first memories of herself are those looked at through eyes that enabled her only to see the outer shapes of things. Having such bad eyesight was one of the first instances where she notices her difference from others around her outside of her family. In her story where she tells of losing the glasses, she likes the fact that nothing is exactly perfect and all she really sees is the colors of lights and the shapes around her. Her eyesight set her apart from her classmates, having to sit at the front of the room, and reveals her once again she is different. This is also a minor factor in her outsider status.

The first major factor illustrating Lorde as an outsider is the fact that she is a woman. IT is not shown often by itself in her story, but in one particular case where she first notices the differences in gender and how they are perceived in society. This happened when she was running for class elections. She wanted to be president and the positions were for president and vice-president. When the teacher announced that the boy would be president and the girl would be vice-president she felt this horribly unfair. It was her first taste of the ways the world was ran at that time. Men first, ladies second.Cheap Custom Essays on Being an Outsider

A major factor in Lorde's life that demonstrates her outsider status is her color. I am not talking about just within her family. I am talking about when she notices that she is black and that there are racial standards in the world in which she is living. She first sees racism in her trip to Washington with her family when they are refused service at a soda fountain. This injustice, she said, "made me sick to my stomach for the whole rest of that trip," (Lorde, 71). If she had only known then what a long trip it would be for her for the rest of her life in dealing with injustices of that kind.

Her parents taught her that she was never to trust white people. I am not sure if she ever really took this bit of information to heart. I think she knew of what the white people were doing to oppress the black, but I also feel that she noticed that everyone around her that was white was not out to get her. In high school, her white friends never invited her over, but she never had them over either, and yet they remained friends. She noticed the racism of the faculty and in many of the students, and came to understand she was different from them, " not because I was Black, but because I was me," (Lorde, 8).

She found that being Black was hard when she had friends that were white and whose parents did not accept it. Like her own parents not trusting the white people, many of her white friend's parents did not trust the black person. One friend, who invited her to dinner, had parents whom not only disapproved of Lorde because she was black, but because she lived alone. According to this lady "no nice girl left her mother's house before she was married, unless she had become a whore, which in Mrs. Madrona's eyes was synonymous with being black," (Lorde, 10).

Another major factor in characterizing Lorde's outsider status is the fact that she was a lesbian. Her first lesbian encounter was with Ginger, yet she knew something about her sexuality was unconventional way before. I think that her awareness of this may have started with Toni, the little girl who Lorde had met on the stairs outside one day. She had wanted to touch and feel Toni all over to make sure she was real. The second person who opened this awareness to her was Gennie, yet she did not know it was that type of love yet. She knew Gennie as her first real friend, and only later understood her loving for Gennie. After Ginger, she had many other relationships with women. All of these at first were uneasy for Lorde. Meeting women was hard. She had to mainly go to bars, yet she did not like to drink. She says in her story that she felt as if she was the only one. She saw many white women who were lesbians, but it was hard to find other black women who were lesbians.

She had been shocked by the fact that she had seen another girl from her college at a gay bar one night. For a while she had seen herself as the only one in college who was a lesbian. Many times in her life was she shocked by who she saw in the bars or who noticed her as being a lesbian, before she had given any indication of her sexual preference.

The combination of being black and being a lesbian was overwhelming for Lorde. She knew that being woman alone was hard. She knew that being a black woman was even harder. Through in the fact that she chose an alternative lifestyle in choosing life partners and it would feel like the weight of world was on your shoulders. She struggled throughout the entire book with all of these things not only with the society around her, but with in her own mind also. She struggled with her love for Muriel and the fact that "free love" was coming about. She wanted Muriel, but also another so why not share. They tried to work this out, but ended up getting burned.

Another small way in which Lorde demonstrates her outsider quality was in her writing of her relationship with Muriel. Towards the end of the relationship, when Muriel begins to wander, she writes of herself like she is looking in on a scene from the outside with no control over the situation. She sees her control slipping away and feels there is nothing she can do to stop it.

After taking all this in consideration, Lorde was an outsider, but she created this for her readers. According to Ker Conway, she left out many important details that were crucial to understanding who Lorde really was. She created this life for herself in Zami, a life where she was a brave black woman facing the harshness of society without a man, but with a woman by her side. But in reality she was married and had two kids. Many of the attributes she acquired in life cam from her mother. In the book she once said of her mother, "her approach to the world; change reality. If you can't change reality, change you perceptions of it," (Lorde, 18). I guess this is what Lorde did. She changed her reality around to make a better story and to make her look better for it. She chose the experiences she wished to reveal to demonstrate her power and what her position held in this period of time.

Lorde, Audre. Zami A New Spelling of My Name. The Crossing Press Freedom, 18.

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Which material is best for keeping water hot?

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Apparatus list

Two copper cans

Boiling water

StopwatchTwo measuring cylinders

Cotton

Corrugated cardboard

Two thermometers

Sellotape

Diagram

Prediction

We predict that the corrugated card will be the best insulator. We predict this because corrugated cardboard has pockets of air inside it and for heat to travel through air, convection needs to take place. It is harder for convection take places than it is for conduction to take place.

The reason that convection is harder than conduction is that the particles in a gas is far apart from each other and need to vibrate a lot before they begin to hit each other. However, the particles in a solid are very close together in a pattern and as the particles begin to heat up, they vibrate and hit each frequently and the heat is conducted through the material.

So, the corrugated card has the ability to keep warmth in whereas cotton does, but not as well as the cardboard.

Fair Test

To make sure that our experiment is fair, we will have only one variable. The variable will be the material, which we wrap around each copper can. We will wrap one can in a piece of cotton material and the other in corrugated card. We will keep the temperature the same and the times that we record the temperature the same.

Method

ɨ Firstly, collect all the required apparatus/equipment.

ɨ Wrap one copper can in corrugated card (once round) and fix it there with a piece of sellotape.

ɨ Next, wrap another copper can in a piece of cotton, again, one time round.

ɨ Now boil a kettle and when the water has boiled measure out two lots of 100ml and pour one lot into one copper can and the other into another can.

ɨ Immediately take the temperature of the water in each can and record the temperatures.

ɨ Now start the stopwatch and record the temperatures of the two sets of water each minute for ten minutes.

ɨ Now repeat the whole experiment again for a second time.

ɨ Take both sets of results and take an average for both.

ɨ Now record the results in a graph to show the differences in temperature and the difference between the two different materials (cotton and corrugated cardboard).

Safety

The only real hazard is that you may scold yourself with the boiling water from the kettle. So just make sure that you are aware when handling hot water to prevent any accidents.

Analysing evidence

From my results, I have found out that as time goes by, the temperature of the water decreases. I have found that the corrugated cardboard kept the water warmer for longer. I know this because after 10 minutes, the temperature of the water wrapped in Corrugated card was 60°c and the temperature of the water wrapped in the cotton material was 58.5°c.

The results that I got through doing this experiment the results do not seem to be proportional. The reason for this is because they don't follow a straight line.

Our prediction was correct. We said that we think that the corrugated cardboard will keep the water warmer for longer and we were correct. We mentioned that it is harder for convection to take place than it is for conduction to, this is proven through science lessons and the fact that the heat would have to travel through the pockets of air inside the corrugated cardboard.

The graph shows quite clearly that for both corrugated cardboard and cotton, the temperature decreases rapidly for the first 6 minutes. Then, for the next 4 minutes, the temperature of the water inside the corrugated cardboard didn't drop nearly as rapidly (65.5°c to 60°c). However, the temperature inside the cotton, still dropped quite a considerable amount (from 64°c to 58.5°c). This proves that corrugated cardboard keeps water warmer for longer.

Evaluating evidence

I think that the experiment was quite successful apart from the fact that the results weren't completely proportional.

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Religion And The Persian Empire

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Religion and the Persian Empire

From the time of hunter-gatherers, religion or some for of it has been the basis for social stability, structure and progress. Religion has given meaning to each and every person and civilization in the Ancient World, and the Persian Empire is of no exception to this rule. 5 B.C.E. marked one of the most influential and innovative periods in Mesopotamia with the introduction of the Persian Empire and its own personal religion.

5 B.C.E. marked the beginning of Persian rule and the end of Chaldean control. Before 5 B.C.E., Chaldeans saw little or no pressure from any exterior forces or entities. However, nothing is perfect. Having little outer competition, the Chaldeans were faced with an equally malignant situation from within. Being constantly consumed and distracted by war from with amongst their own people, the Chaldeans had many of the resources directed to curtailing this issue. Therefore, being tied up with inner issues, the Chaldeans were inevitably overtaken by the Persian Empire.

Once conquering the Chaldeans and taking Babylon, the Persians became the power of the Mesopotamian region. With this widespread control, they soon became to be known as the super power of the Ancient World. However, this power was brandished in a new way that would set them aside from the previous inhabitants of the land. The philosophy, backed by the King Cyrus, was to allow all provinces and civilizations to maintain their own, as long as they adhere to the rules and regulations of the Persian Empire. Under the leadership of Cyrus, the Persians introduced a religious philosophy that would change all of the Ancient World.

Cheap University Papers on Religion And The Persian Empire

The Persian Empire religious base was a crucially important factor in its success. The Persians introduced the first is what is now known as Axial religion. Axial religion is the belief that there is one universal god. This belief quickly influenced everyone throughout the Persian Empire.

The religion itself is based on stories about someone who may or may not have lived. The individuals name was Zoroaster and he was speculated to have lived somewhere near northwestern Persia possibly in the seventh century B.C. and possibly as early as 100 B.C. Opposing the ideals of the old Persian gods, Zoroaster proposed a belief that there is one god, named Ahuramazda, that should be coveted and adorned and subsequently wrote a book of preachings named Zend Avesta.

The religion sparked the birth of a dualistic religion. The dualistic religion believes that there is a heaven and hell and this philosophy invented new ideas and approaches in religion during this time. Using the idea of heaven and hell and the idea of light and darkness was new to all walks of life in the Mesopotamian area and thus it sparked many new influences and altercations in other religions.

The religion itself also sparked a subset religion. In Zoroastrianism, Mithras is the Persian god of light and wisdom. Mithras is an assistant to Ahuramazda and a right hand angel of the God. Soon afterwards and primarily on the western region of the empire, Mithras becomes its own religion. The story of Mithras reflects the story of Christ. Thus this reflection is proof that Persian rule during its time in Mesopotamia inspired changes and innovations through the Fertile Crescent.

In conclusion, the Persian Empire came into power with an ideology of live and let live. Introducing this philosophy, brought about prosperous times and set precedents unbeknownst to the ancient world. However, it's most apparent and substantial contribution to the ancient world came in the form of a dualistic, monotheistic religion that ultimately brought about new thinking and fresh ideas. With the introduction of Zoroastrianism, religion in the ancient world became influenced and as a result changed forever. Zoroastrianism birthed the Mithraism religion and eventually caused ripples in the religious foundations of each and every civilization to follow.

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Rousseau's Theories, Applied Today

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Rousseaus quote is about people coming together and following in one direction to help a situation, in a way which benefits society. Canadian meat exports were banned due to a recent case of Mad cow disease in Alberta. Canadians are proving Rousseaus quote true as they come together to support the sagging beef industry is this crisis.

What is Mad Cow disease? Mad Cow Disease, or Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is a chronic, degenerative disorder affecting the central nervous system of cattle.BSE is one of several diseases catagorized as Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSEs). The disease is believed to be caused by a self-replicating protein (a prion; PrPSc) rather than a bacterium or virus. The human variant of BSE is called Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD), it is a prion disease in humans. Though hereditary, a small number of CJD cases have been linked to BSE. CJD is a prion disease found in Humans. A Prion or Brain eater is an infectious agent which causes various form of disease within humans and animals. The diseases are characterised by loss of motor control, dementia, paralysis wasting and eventually death, typically following pneumonia.Visible end results at post-mortem are non-inflammatory lesions, vacuoles, amyloid protein deposits and astrogliosis. This was not the first case of Mad Cow disease in Canada, in 1 a cow imported from Britian displayed symptoms and was destroyed. Later is was found that the cow carried the disease, and 5 other cows in its herd were killed to prevent spreading of the disease. Mexico and the United States put a temporary ban on Canadian Beef because of this, and Agricultural Officials decided it was best to destroy any animal imported from Britain between 18 and 10. In 15 the disease resurfaced, but not as BSE this time as two cases of CJD, it was found that two blood donors had died from CJB. In August of 00 yet another human was claimed by CJD, a man in Ottawa died of CJD after a visit to the UK.In May 00 veterinary officials confirmed a cow that had been sent to slaughter had infact had BSE. This has started an uproar in the Canadian Beef industry. Because of previous problems Canada no longer and has not since 17, imported bone meal or meat from nations where mad cow disease is found. Though this was an isolated case, and the cow was destroyed many countries U.S and Japan have again, put a ban on importing meats from Canada. In July Mexico, one of Canada bigest importers of beef announced they may be ready to reopen their country to Canadian Beef, but Japan who had gone through their own Mad Cow crisis not more than two years ago refused to accept the meat. In late August it was announced that Canadian Beef may be moving south of the border back to the U.S very soon. Canada since May has been taking many precautions and spent a lot of money to make sure this type of does not happen again. How did Canadians react to the news? Canadians through the crisis have been supportive of the farmers. Though most were cautious, many big grocery store chains have opted for selling only Canadian Beef. Also the Canadian McDonalds restaurant chain has decided to use only 100% Canadian Beef is their very popular Big Macs. August nd McDonalds gave out coupons for free Big Macs for each purchased to help the Canadian Beef Industry. Alberta Agriculture Minister Shirley McClellanhas said We believe our food safety system is among the best in the world, on many occasions. Canadians seem to believe this and are celebrating their beef in support of the hurting industry.

Rousseaus quote is evident in this situation, because this situation emobodies a group of people, going with the general in order to better him and his fellow man. When our beef industry was sagging and other countries had banned our meats, Canadians came to the aid of their country, without hesitation and with lots of support. It shows that the values described by Rousseau are still evident in society even 00 years

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