Highalnd clearances

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In this essay I will evaluate the opinion that the highland clearances of the nineteenth century were the best solution for the economy but a disaster for the inhabitants of the highlands. As the title suggests there was and still is a dual point of view to this question. One has to consider the subtenants and cottars who were the subject of the clearances and on the other hand Britain's contemporary economy and politics. To tackle this question I will first give a short overview over the situation of the Highlands until ca. 1800.

Up ti the end of the 18-century the highland society was based on clanship with hierarchical structure. The chief of the clan had several tacksmen who formed the clan's army and let the land to subtenants who themselves let it to cottars. It was not a system of land letting that was based on economic relations but on kinship and mutual respect and trust.

Apart from the Highlands' agriculture the people lived from seasonal migration to the lowlands to help with the harvest or fishing. They also exported their black cattle. From the money they bought cereals. Thus there was an early specialisation in industry.

Since 1700 the chiefs were involved in southern politics. They slowly abandoned the traditional clanship. Since 170 they raised the rents of their peasants to be able to lead a life similar to that of the Lowlands. They gave land not because of kinship anymore but according to the highest rent. In 170 Sir Alexander Mac Donald of Sleat and Norman MacLeod of Dunvegan sold some of their clansmen into slavery, which can be seen as the very beginning of the clearances.

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Scottish lowlanders and the English government always wanted to pacify the Highlands. They felt threatened by the Jacobites. After Culloden they forbade Highland arms and tradition.

Finally the chiefs that had turned into landlords found possibilities to involve in politics and to increase their personal wealth kelp, sheep and deer. To progress with that profound changes were made.

All together the Highlands were much less developed than the rest of Britain at that time. It remained a quite primitive society with poor communication, low capital and ancient traditions. Apart from the early but stagnating specialisation in cattle the Highlands did not participate in Britain's economy. They bought cereals from the cash they got for the cattle but otherwise lived on home industry and self-sufficient farming. Thus the regional interest of the Highland did not comport with the rest of the nation.

As seen above the landlords wanted to improve their land from an early age. Their common opinion was that the peasants were indolent and lazy and therefore opponent to improvements. "The attachment of the wretched creatures in question was a habit; the habit of indolence and inexperience, the attachment of an animal little differing in feelings from his own horned animals." For the landlords the improvement consisted in abolishing the small uneconomic fields of the cottars. They wanted to create large sheep farms inhabited by new sheep breeds from England and a few shepherds to attend them. Besides sheep farming the Highlands offered another resource. The soap and glass factories in England needed huge amounts of kelp, an alkali rich product won from seaweed. Therefore the landlords wanted the peasants to clear their fields and to settle along the coast to harvest the seaweed, while sheep were grazing on their former land. As kelping was labour intensive the landlords were afraid of a loss of population through emigration. Thus the clearances in the beginning of the 1-century were a shifting of population within the land rather than an eviction from the land. Fishing was attempted but failed due to inexperience and too primitive gear.

The supposed effect on society was first of all a relief of congestion on the Highland farms, partly a real overcrowding and partly a population only too big for sheep farming. Secondly the landlords with their adoption of lowland habits wanted to "civilise" the peasants. They should get used to regular work in one sector like kelping that they could later work in the factories of the lowlands. Thus they were given only a tiny patch of land (which was later even more reduced) and a tiny hut, a croft. The crofters had to work in the kelping industry because otherwise they were not able to pay for rents and supplementary food. With the population concentrated in one area it was also easier to introduce law, order and lowland education. It was assumed that the Highlanders would move out of their free will to areas were there was the most capital like the fishing industry and the new factories and towns. Although these theories sounded not too inhuman they did not apply to the crofters. When the kelp industry ceased even more sheep were brought into the Highlands. After the sheep had become uneconomical the landlords converted sheep walks into deer forests for the sporting upper class. According to the landlords' theory the crofters should have moved further and further to gain more capital but, deeply rooted on their land, they did not. They rather accepted poverty and overcrowding and hoped for redistribution of land than to leave. Thus the landlords increasingly pushed the crofters out of the estates, especially when the kelping industry ceased. Their new philosophy was expressed by J. MacCulloch "The longer a change is protracted, the more severe it will be, because great numbers will be added to great poverty."

The opinion of the crofters looked somewhat different. For them the most obvious thing was that their society and traditions were violated. Kinship was not important anymore, the tacksmen were abolished, which created a social vacuum between landlords and crofters. J. Hunter describes "The institutional forms of a society with a continuous history of at least 1000 years were, it is true, destroyed simply by passing and enforcing laws that abolished them." As the crofters' land became smaller and smaller seasonal migration became increasingly important to feed the families and to pay the rent for the croft. Whole families moved to the lowlands in summer and so virtually abandoned their land. However, despite the social changes that took place the Highlanders were not willing to leave their land and homes for good. Their ancient traditions of peasantry made them to oppose to the clearances and let them wait for redistribution of land. They regarded it as an enormous injustice that their land was taken away and given to sheep and foreigners. As the crofters did not benefit from the money their landlords made with kelping and sheep farming they did not regard the changes as an improvement.

The moving to a croft went together with a loss of status especially for those families that became almost landless. A moral decline was observed after the crofters were not able to improve their condition or even pay their rents despite hard work.

If one considers that the crofters were deprived of their securing traditions, their social status and were never organized into unions it is easier to understand why they did not protest earlier or became as violent as their Irish counterpart. Deeply rooted in clanship the crofters were used to follow their landlords and tacksmen. So they could be removed to the coast or convinced by the tacksmen to follow them to America without major protest. Few in waves occurring protests delayed the clearances but could not prevent them. The most famous protests were the Braes Strike in 1881 and the Sutherland Clearances. Only after the Crofters Wars in the 1880s the public became aware. Later rent strikes like in Ireland followed with the aim of land redistribution.

However, the most common form of protest was emigration. Its numbers were a clear measure of the desperate situation of the people.

As we can see there was the crowd of poor or even starving crofters which felt unjustly treated on one hand, and on the other hand there were the landlords who wanted to participate in the national economy with all its advantages. Both had in common an insatiable land hunger. The reactions of the two groups were naturally different crofters emigrated, landlords cleared. For both there were push and pull reasons. Surely the crofters were urged to emigrate by the landlords, raised rents, sunken cattle prices and the famines of the 180s and 1840s. Yet there was encouragement to emigrate by letters from relatives who had already gone to North America. The promise of very good land especially in Carolina and the promise of free profession of the catholic faith also helped. Added was that the population became more mobile once they had left their ancient home and moved to the coast. Pull reasons for the landlords were wealth, political influence and a southern lifestyle. Yet they were pushed by the national economy and competition and the fear of loosing their family heritage.

Proof that emigration was not due to landlords' fault was Lewis, where James Matheson spent a fortune on the improvement of the condition of his tenants. Overpopulation was not the consequence of sheep farming but the failure of kelping and the growth of the population. While in 1844 Matheson believed that emigration was not necessary he had changed his mind in 1850. He had to remove 0% of the population. He acted as friendly as before he cancelled rents, paid the passage and provided food and clothing. Yet even in this case of very liberal terms of emigration there was some pressure put on the people. Matheson told his agents that he would have forced them to leave if they had not accepted his help.

There were suggested solutions for the economic and social problem. David Stewart of Garth was the first writer who blamed the clearances for all problems of the Highlands. He was not entirely against sheep farming but wanted to integrate it into the old lifestyle in a slow change. He was concerned about the social benefit of the Highlanders. Unfortunately his ideas were too idealistic. He put them into practise on his own estate but saw himself forced to clear the land in 180. His ideas in extreme would have dispossessed the landlords and created an independent peasant state next to Britain. 4 Adam Smith offered capitalist ideas. He proposed regional specialisation and assumed that labour and capital would move to the most advantageous places. It was not his fault that this movement did not happen but the fault of Highland tradition and psychology.

As the example of Garth and others shows a major problem of the Highlands was overcrowding. This was increased by the introduction of the potato and kelping. Crofters on the coast lived on potatoes, shellfish and milk, which was a well balanced diet. The landlords were first not aware of this development. Later they tried to mitigate overcrowding by further clearances. The population grew so fast that it probably would not have managed to sustain itself even if the old system had remained. A growth of population was observed in the rest of Europe as well. The difference to the Highlands was the new labour intensive factories and the better natural resources elsewhere in Europe. The conditions in the Highlands could have been improved by giving the crofters as much land as to sustain by its crops. That would have meant to clear some more families, which would not have mattered regarding the anyway vast number of emigrants.

There was some (late) state intervention. The Napier Commission, the Passenger Vessel Act of 1884, emigration help and the Crofters Holdings Act and its successors improved the situation. State help could have been increased but that would not have comported with the Victorian laissez-faire politics. Another attempt would have been to move away from landlordism and create some form of co-operative between all Highlanders.

It is a paradox that the landlords' wish for an improved economy decreased the traditional specialised export of cattle and labour force (seasonal migration). The peasants had long been used to such an economic exchange with the lowlands. Although it did not bring as much wealth as kelp, sheep or deer it was important because the Highlanders needed the cash to buy supplementary food. Another paradox was the introduction of potatoes. First it helped to feed the growing population to an extend that was impossible with cereals because the potato was much better adapted to the condition of the Highland soil. Later it caused the worst famines because people relied so much on it that they hardly had any other food when the potato harvest failed due to blight.

All agrarian changes were either short sighted or unlucky. The war dependent need of goods, overgrazing and bad fishing gear could have been considered before. The chemical production of alkali, and wool and mutton from Australia (mostly sold by evicted crofters) were bad luck. Another problem was that the changes happened to fast. What had taken 00 years in the rest of Britain happened within a few decades in the Highlands. It was extremely difficult to take up a totally new lifestyle in such a short time. Even for the landlords it was too fast. Some of them went bust because they spent their new money in London or Edinburgh.

Altogether one can say that the clearances were necessary if the Highlands were to remain an economical and political part of Britain. If the Highlands had become an autonomic region the traditional life could have gone on until the Highlanders themselves had found changes necessary. Then the competition between Highland lords and the upper and emerging middle class of England would not have become so important. Yet the clearances were and are indefensible, even if one considers the contemporary laissez-faire politics. Contemporaries were shocked by the poverty and wretchedness of the crofters and the conditions of some emigration ships. The crofters had to carry all the disadvantages that arouse from the economic improvement of the whole of Britain. The capital from the economic changes was divided unequally. That in itself was unfair. And although the crofters' conditions have slowly improved since the Crofters Holdings Act in 1886 crofters today belong still to the poorest and less advantageous part of the British population.

Bibliography

Gray, M. The Highland Economy 1750-1850, Oliver and Boyd Edinburgh and London 157

Hunter, J., The Making of the Crofting Community, John Donald Publishers Ltd Edinburgh 176

MacAskill,J., We have Won the Land, Acair Ltd Stornoway 1

Richards, E., A History of the Highland Clearances, volume , Croom Helm Ltd London 185

www.norcol.ac.uk

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Psychology - Conflict

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Introduction

Conflict is the clash of activities, feelings or intentions occurring together, expressed through a range of either verbal denigration to that of physical violence to a person or property. Morton (17) defines it as existing "when incompatible activities occur", resulting in making the second activity "less likely or effective".

Literature Review

Early psychologists argued that conflict is caused by an innate instinctual or biological mechanism, which would predispose humans towards aggression. This gave way to more sophisticated and scientific hypotheses over time. One important development was the Frustration-Aggression theory.Order custom research paper on Psychology - Conflict

Frustration-Aggression theory (F-A theory)

In 1, Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, and Sears published a monograph on aggression in which they presented what has come to be known as the frustration-aggression hypothesis (F-A). Dollard et al. posited that the occurrence of aggressive behavior always presupposes the existence of frustration and, contrariwise, that the existence of frustration always leads to some form of aggression. Frustration, in this context, was specified as the thwarting of a goal response, and a goal response, in turn, was taken to mean the reinforcing final operation in an ongoing behavior sequence. At times, however, the term frustration is used to refer not only to the process of blocking a persons attainment of a reinforcer but also to the reaction to such blocking. Consequently, being frustrated means both that ones access to reinforcers is being thwarted by another party (or possibly by particular circumstances) and that ones reaction to this thwarting is one of annoyance.

Dollards hypotheses use Freuds ideas about his psycho-dynamic explanations, which indicate that humans are born with an instinct drive to aggress and destroy and this aggressive energy must be released. Aggression was meant to protect and is aimed outwards but it can also be released through activities like competition.

The questions that this theory raise are does all frustration lead automatically to aggression, and can all aggression and conflict be traced to some catalytic frustration? These questions, as well as the challenge of insufficiency of causal link to aggression, and other insights into human behaviour have lead to the discrediting of the Frustration-Aggression theory and the subsequent development of the Social Learning theory.

A revised version of the F-A theory, the Aggression Cue theory (Berkowitz, 158) emphasized frustration or attack as "important antecedents of aggression, and the presence of aggressive cues for the elicitation of aggression". He believed that both the innate and external factors (Learning theory) play a big role whether aggression occurs or not. If aggression is shown as a result of frustration also depends on many factors, like how close we are to reaching our goal and whether the frustration is a long-term or a short-term one and the number and intensity of frustrations that occur together.

Classical Conditioning takes place when an unconditional and conditional stimulus are paired together the individual may learn to respond to the conditional stimulus when it is presented alone; Berkowitz thought that something (e.g. weapon) can become associated with aggression and may act as a cue, so it triggers an aggressive response.

Implications of F-A theories

Young Singaporean teenagers, at the age of 1, faced with changes, challenges and increased responsibilities, a heavier curriculum plus CCAs may experience a 'block' in their pursuit to attain these goals, which will lead to a dis-equilibrium and thus causing them to display aggressive behaviours.

When teenagers are inexperienced in dealing with unattainable needs and goals, they find that the easiest way to get rid of the frustration is to act violently against others who they blame for their bad situation (extrinsic drive, scapegoat device). Thus schools are left with the responsibility of dealing with a teenager's frustration, which ultimately and commonly, turns into aggression.

Perceptual Control Theory (PCT)

In the early 150s, William T. Powers made the brilliant observation that people behave to deliberately control many, but not all, of their own perceptions of the world. A person who acts on the world to control his or her own perceptions must affect parts of the world. As observers, we can see some of the environmental variables that the person controls. From our vantage point outside the other person, we see events and relationships and processes that would ordinarily vary, but that are controlled by the person, which is to say the person keeps those events and relationships and processes at some predetermined state or condition.

To explain how people control their perceptions, Powers developed control system theory (CST), which was the early name for what is now called perceptual control theory. The new name was adopted early in the 10s, to distinguish Powers theory from the many fallacious ideas that some people had come to call control theory. Powers said that people specify part of what they perceive happening in the world by comparing what they actually perceive against what they intend to perceive. If there is no discrepancy or difference (called perceptual error) between actual and intended perceptions, the person does not act to change the world; but if there is a discrepancy, the person acts to eliminate the error. People behave to eliminate, or prevent, differences between actual and intended perceptions. People behave to cancel out the effects of anything in the environment that disturbs the perceptions they are trying to control.

Perceptual Control Theory (PCT) explains a simple fact People act to control some of their own perceptions. They specify part of what they will perceive, then they act to make those perceptions happen. People also keep their specified perceptions from changing, by acting to oppose and cancel the effects of many things in the world that might disturb them and make them change. PCT helps us to understand what happens when one persons actions disturb another persons controlled perceptions. (Thomas W. Bourbon, 17)

Implications of PCT

PCT highlights that what is perceived may not be the problem, and the solutions that we as teachers come up with may not be effective because we are trying to change behaviour. For example, trying to control students by giving them rewards or punishment does not teach them how to think. Instead, the root of the problem must be tackled and students have to learn to think their way out of conflict, just as they have to learn how to think when they have problems with Mathematics or Science. In one of the strategies highlighted in the next section, students are given the responsibility for their choice of action(s), allowing teachers to move away from the traditional method of canning and chiding a student who has displayed unacceptable behaviour.

Strategies

Conflict Resolution

Teaching youth how to manage conflict in a productive way can help reduce incidents of violent behaviour. Conflict resolution education is a beneficial component of a comprehensive violence prevention and intervention program in schools and communities. It encompasses problem solving in which the parties in dispute express their points of view, voice their interests, and find mutually acceptable solutions. Conflict resolution education programs help the parties recognize that while conflict happens all the time, people can learn new skills to deal with conflict in non-violent ways. The programs that appear to be most effective are comprehensive and involve multiple components such as the problem-solving processes and principles of conflict resolution, the basics of effective communication and listening, critical and creative thinking, and an emphasis on personal responsibility and self-discipline.

Two common strategies for approaching conflict resolution can be identified (1) Peer Mediation and () Peaceable Classrooms. In both approaches, conflict resolution education is viewed as giving youth non-violent tools to deal with daily conflicts that can lead to self-destructive and violent behaviours. It is up to the school to decide how conflict resolution education will be integrated into its overall educational environment. The expectation is that when youth learn to recognize and constructively address what takes place before conflict or differences lead to violence, the incidence and intensity of that situation will diminish.

Peer Mediation Approach

Specially trained student mediators work with their peers to resolve conflicts. Mediation programs reduce the use of traditional disciplinary actions such as suspension, detention, and expulsion; encourage effective problem solving; decrease the need for teacher involvement in student conflicts; and improve school climate. By the end of the school year, schools reported less than 10 fights, a major decrease from their usual figures.

Peaceable Classroom Approach

The Peaceable Classroom approach integrates conflict resolution into the curriculum and daily management of the classroom. It uses the instructional methods of cooperative learning and "academic controversy". The programme shows teachers how to integrate conflict resolution into the curriculum, classroom management, and discipline practices. It emphasizes opportunities to practice cooperation, appreciation of diversity, and caring and effective communication. Generally, peaceable classrooms are initiated on a teacher-by-teacher basis into the classroom setting and are the building blocks of the peaceable school.

Studies on the effectiveness of the Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers program, a Peaceable Classroom approach to conflict resolution, show that discipline problems requiring teacher management decreased by approximately 80 percent and referrals to the principal were reduced to zero.

Responsible Thinking Process (RTP)

The RTP, based on the PCT, is a unique discipline process, which is both non-manipulative and non-punitive. It creates mutual respect by teaching students how to think through what they are doing in relation to the rules of wherever they are. This gives students personal accountability for their actions. The key component of this process is its focus on how students can achieve their goals without getting in the way of others who are trying to do the same thing.

When a disruption occurs in the classroom, the teacher will ask the student "What are you doing?" The student will then make a choice whether to follow the rule (which is to pay attention and not to make noise) or to go to the RTC (Responsible Thinking Class), where the student will receive counselling from a professional employee of the school. A student is given one chance only. By the second disruption, the student will be told "You have chosen to go to the RTC" and it is only under special circumstances that a maximum of chances should be given. The teacher will fill in a referral form and the student will proceed to RTC. Student movement will be checked. When a student chooses to disrupt in the RTC, he or she will be asked to leave the school, accompanied by a parent or guardian. Otherwise, the student will be asked to sit outside the office until the parent or guardian can bring the student home.

Implications for Singapore schools

The Reflective Thinking Programme (RTP) seeks to develop the student's ability to reflect upon their past actions rationally and objectively and thus manage their anger and frustration more effectively. It promotes sense of ownership by making students take responsibility of their misbehaviour, thus acting as deterrence to the better students and would undoubtedly help students who actually engage in reflective thinking to improve their anger management However, bearing in mind that most of the ill-disciplined students are recalcitrant and defiant and made of up of the NT students, the RTP may not have served its purpose well.

One of the advantages is that the RTP seems to work for the teachers teaching in the classes with poorer discipline as it removes the disturbing element/s from the class enabling the teacher to go on conducting the lesson undisrupted.

While the RTP relieves the teacher from spending precious lesson time disciplining them, the recalcitrant students sent to the RTP do not seem to benefit much from the scheme.

Firstly, the students sent are not interested in learning and thus the RTP serves as an escape for them from the class. They are more than happy to spend their time in the air-conditioned room for the whole lesson period. It has then become an incentive for them to misbehave in class and be sent to RTP.

Secondly, the recalcitrant students do not actually reflect much about their actions or behaviour that caused them to be sent out of class nor do they seek to improve their behaviour. While most adults are possessed with the ability to reflect upon past actions and learn from the past experiences, we cannot expect the students of that age to be able to do so.

The counselor is also unable to follow up on them too due to time constraint and lack of contact and proximity unlike teachers. Yet teachers themselves are forever short of time, and in the end, RTP only serves as a method that escalates bad conduct because students are not afraid of being punished in the end. They do not feel the pain and thus their behaviour or conduct does not change.

Students are expected to plan their solutions before they are allowed back to school or into the classroom, which could be with the help of teachers, parents or counsellors. Only after the school or the teacher whose class the student has disrupted, accepts the plan, then the student be allowed into the school or classroom.

Conclusion

The effective conflict resolution education programs highlighted above have helped to improve the climate in school and community by reducing the number of juvenile acts in these settings; by decreasing the number of chronic school absences, the number of disciplinary referrals and suspensions; by increasing academic instruction during the school day; and by increasing the self-esteem and self-respect, as well as the personal responsibility and self-discipline of the young people involved in these programs.

Young people cannot be expected to promote and encourage the peaceful resolution of conflicts if they do not see conflict resolution principles and strategies being modelled by adults in all areas of their lives, such as in business, sports, entertainment, and personal relationships. Adults play a part in making the environment more peaceful by practicing non-violent conflict resolution when minor or major disputes arise in their daily lives.

Please note that this sample paper on Psychology - Conflict is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Psychology - Conflict, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Psychology - Conflict will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Impact of Two Sociological Theorists on Society

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Impact of Two Sociological Theorists on Society

Morgan Alley

Sociological Theory

April 17, 00Write my Essay on Impact of Two Sociological Theorists on Society

Two theorists, Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead, use sociological theory to develop their views on the interactions and structures of society. Sociological Theory relies on evidence from senses and from the social world itself to arrive at its conclusions, it is an abstract, symbolic representation of, and explanation of, social reality, and a disciplined manner about the social world (Adams, Sydie 001, p1,4). Everyone uses sociology in some way of thinking when guessing why someone acts in a certain way, or why something happened, this is just a couple of things that we as people do everyday. Sociologist however, have more in depth thought and do more research, as well as gathering evidence to support these thoughts and then hope to present them in publications for society. Cooley and Meads views have made a significant impact, not only in sociological world, but also in the view of the world. Each theorist has made different contributions to society but, they also have similarities in some aspects of sociology.

Charles Horton Cooley, our first theorist, was born 1864, in Ann Arbor, Michigan the son of a law professor at University of Michigan. Cooley was inspired by William James, John Dewey, as well as Darwin, and the developments in German Psychology. Herbert Spencer also influenced him but fell away from his views, as did most theorists. Cooley suffered from ill health, and as a semi-invalid, he read extensively and indulged in "much day-dreaming" (Reiss 168). He was unenthusiastic about engineering, and did a graduate degree in political economy and sociology at Michigan

(Adams, Sydie 001, pp10,11). Cooley was making his contributions at the turn of the twentieth century with a main focus on the self and primary groups.

The self in a very large and interesting class of cases is the social reference that takes on the form of a somewhat definite imagination of how one's self appears in a particular mind, and the kind of self-feeling one has is determined by the attitude toward this attributed mind. A social self of this sort might be called the reflected or looking glass self

"Each to each a looking glass

Reflect the other that doth pass

(Cooley, 10, pp.17-185,

www.Pfeiffer.edu/~Iridener/DSS/Cooley/LKGLSSLF.HTML)

He felt that this looking glass self has three elements "the imagination of out appearance to the other person; the imagination of his judgment of that appearance, and some sort of self-feeling." The last element is critical cause the feeling of pride or shame is not simply the reflection of the self but the "imagined effect of this reflection upon another's mind" (Cooley 10184-185,Adams, Sydie p1). Cooley suggested that the meaning of "I" is grasped when the child becomes aware of "self-feeling" accompanying the use of I, me and my by other" and this awakens ones "own self-feeling already existing in and inarticulate form," and they "come to stand for self lacerative feeling or attitude, for self will and appropriation" (Cooley, 100,1,Adams,Sydie p.1). Society exists in and individuals mind because of interactions with many other individuals, so that "self and society are twin-born and the notion of a separate and independent ego is an illusion" (Cooley, 10 0,1,Adams,Sydie p1).

Intimate face-to-face association and cooperation characterize primary groups. Primary groups are primary in the sense that they give the individual the complete experience of social unity, and also in the sense that they do change in the same degree as more elaborate relations, but form a comparatively permanent source out of which the latter are ever springing. However they are not independent of the larger society, but to some extent reflect its spirit (Cooley 10 pp5-1,www.Pfeiffer.edu/~Iridener/DSS/Cooley?PRIMGRP.HTML). Cooley felt that these primary groups are fundamental in forming the social nature and ideals of the individual (Cooley 156, p). The most important spheres of these groups are the family, play group for children, and the neighborhood or community group of elders (Cooley 156, p4). These groups are the basis for which the individual develops and it also sets the morals that one must follow through out the various stages of life. Ideas of love, freedom, and justice also had their part in primary groups. Primary groups, however, "need to be watched and cherished with very special care" so they do not decay or disappear, because they are basis on which higher imaginations, "moral unity," and "brotherhood" are built (Cooley 10,Adams,Sydie p14). Cooley maintained that human nature is not something existing separately in the individual, but a group-nature or primary phase of society, a relatively simple and general condition of the social mind. It is something more than the mere instinct that is born in us �though that enters into it- and something less than the more elaborate development of ideas and sentiments that makes up institutions. It is nature that are developed and expressed in those simple face-to-face

groups that is somewhat alike in all societies. In these types of societies that human nature comes into existence. Man does not have human nature at birth; he cannot acquire it except through fellowship, and it decays in isolation (Cooley 10, pp5-1, www.pfeiffer.edu/~Iridener/DSS/Cooley/PRIMGRP.HTML).

Cooley saw caste, or rigid inequalities between groups in society, as perpetuated by three conditions "likeness or unlikeness in the constituent of the population; the rate of social change and the state of communication or enlightenment" (Cooley 1017,Adams,Sydie p.16). A more open and free society promotes divisions based on competition rather than heredity and marked a transition from caste to class society. (Adams, Sydie 001, p.16).

Cooley understood that the self and the acceptance of others led to primary groups, that in-turn help to develop a better understanding of the self. The relationship of the self and primary groups develop society and install the morals and a since of the "we-feeling." It was the we-feeling he wished to see prevail in society at large. The we-feeling he wished to see prevail in society at large. The we-feeling broke down caste and "wipes out conventional distinctions," leaving only those that was functional for the organic whole (Cooley 1561-1).

George Herbert Mead was born in South Hadley, MA on February 7, 186, and died in Chicago, Illinois, on April 6, 11. Mead entered Oberlin College and earned a Bachelors Degree. He earned a Masters Degree in Philosophy at Harvard University and lived with William James during this time. He later worked at the University of

Michigan and worked with and was influenced by Charles Horton Cooley, William James, and John Dewey which gives them some of the same views of the development of the self. Mead and Dewey moved to the University of Chicago where Mead taught mostly social psychology and took major roles in the time of Pragmatist movement in Chicago. Mead's major contribution to social psychology was his attempt to show how the human self arises in the process of social interaction, especially by way of symbolic interaction (www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/mead.htm).

The process of social interaction use symbolic communication whish is the use of signs, such as gestures, to convey meaning. When the gesture is more than a reflex action that stimulates a response in the other, it becomes a significant symbol. A significant symbol is a gesture that has a meaning behind it, such that the symbol "answers to the meaning in the experience of the first individual and also calls out the meaning in the second individual (Mead, 164a157,Adams,Sydie p1). Mead supports the view that an analysis of the various meanings of objects and situations depends finally on role taking and the use of significant symbols. Analysis requires a mind having a social component, which is constitutive and necessary to every individual mind (Mead, 18,p11). Meads illustration of a dog fight, in which each dog's action is a stimulus for the other dog; as the act is "responded to by the other dog; it in turn, undergoes change" (Mead 164a154,Adams,Sydie p1). However, conversations of gestures do not have to be significant gestures. Gestures become significant when there is attitude behind them (Adams, Sydie 001,p1). Therefore "A conversation of gestures consists simply

in continued readjustment of one individual to another" (Miller, 18,p10). Mead viewed the social self as a social object dependent on communication through symbols and gestures. Through such communication humans take part in social interaction, and this brings about actions and reactions by others, this view by others cause the self to develop. People taking the attitudes of others became known as the generalized other (Mead 164b5-84,Adams,Sydie p). The role taking of others develops in two stages the play stage and the game stage. The play stage involves the child taking the role of others, such as role of parents, it represents relatively simple role taking because one role at a time is played and the relationship between roles is not clearly understood (Adams,Sydie 001,p). The game stage deals with the ability to understand connections between roles. At this stage the child must "not only take the role of other, but must assume the various roles of all participants in the game, and govern his actions accordingly" (Mead, 164b85,Adams,Sydie p). In the game stage, the child learns to "function in the organized whole, and this tends to determine his relationship with the group to which he belongs"(Mead, 14160,Adams,Sydie p). The game stage is the ability of the person to take the role of the generalized other and developing the self emerges from these stages.

The self that emerges from taking the attitudes of others Mead is referred to as the "Me." The "Me" represents the attitudes of others that the self is aware of and to which the "I" responded (Mead, 164a0,Adams,Sydie p5). The "Me" contains the social knowledge of roles, structures, values, and beliefs and their implications for social action.

The "Me" represents self-control as the "expression of the 'me" against the expression of the 'I'" (Mead,164a8-,Adams,Sydie p5).

The full nature of these levels of "me" comes into proper relief only when we understand the meaning and function of the "I" (Natanson, 17 p16). The "I," is the creative, imaginative part of the self, which Mead believed is evident in artist (Adams, Sydie 001,p5). Mead understood the "I" as a transcendent act in which the unique self, the person, adds to or goes beyond traditional or typical behavior. In this sense, the contribution of the "I" to the individuals behavior is that of an emergent, novel quality that transcends the "me." The "I" also "both calls out the 'me' and responds to it" (Natanson, 17,p16).

Both "I" and "me" relate necessarily to social experience without the common-sense world of other persons with whom the individual interacts, without "society" with its economic, moral, and cultural organization, it is not meaningful to speak of a "self," let alone the special aspect of the self termed the "I" and "me" (Natanson, 17,p16). The individual takes the attitude of the "me" or the attitude of "I" according to the situations in which one finds themselves (www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/mead/htm). The "I" and the "me" is a dynamic relationship that involves the constant interaction of both to develop the self. The process of determining the self puts society in a constant changing atmosphere, described as social change.

The constant interaction of the "I," "me," and social change, Mead felt, is a dialectical relation between individuals and society and the self emerges out of these

interactions. For Mead society is the product of reflexive individuals' taking account of others, and mind and self can only develop in society (Adams, Sydie 001,p7). Society then is based on social acts, which the occasion or stimulus which sets free impulses is found in the character or conduct of a living form that belongs to the proper environment of the living form that whose impulse it is (Natanson,17,p18).

Cooley and Mead shared a lot of views and have some of the same ideas. This could be due to the fact that they were colleagues at the University of Michigan between 181 and 18. Both were also influenced by William James and John Dewey, as well as Darwin and his developments. Mead was influenced by Cooley's ideas on the interactive, communicative nature of society, and the ideas that the self was created from such interactions, beginning in attachment to small, primary groups, through which links to larger social structures are established (Adams,Sydie 001,p1). Mead and Cooley were both concerned with the self, but also with the solutions to the many social problems that hand resulted form industrialization, urbanization, and mass immigration to the United States. Both felt that scientific sociology is the answer to the problems that challenge a democratic society (Adams, Sydie 001, p10). Cooley and Mead's views of the self had and still has great impacts on how we develop in society today, it also set the stage for the development of symbolic interactions, which is the explanation of interactions through the use of symbols for communication. Both also stressed the need to preserve and enlarge democratic freedoms. Mead and Cooley believed that the success of reform efforts depends on the use of scientific methods, with the sociologist having great contributions to make (Adams, Sydie 001, p). With both theorist coming

through at the same time and having the same Pragmatic influence, one can see why there contributions to the sociological world have similarities.

Bibliography

Adams,Bert N. & Sydie, R.A. (001)

Sociological Theory

Thousand Oaks, California, Pine Forge Press

Cooley, Charles H. (156)

Social Organizations

Glencoe, Illinois, The Free Press

Cooley, Charles H. (10)

Human Nature and Social Order "The Looking Glass

Self," New York Scribner's Sons

www.Pfeiffer.edu/~Iridener/DSS/Cooley/LKGLSSLF.HTML

Cooley, Charles H. (10)

Social Organizations "A Study of the Larger Mind"

New York Scribner's Sons

www.Pfeiffer.edu/~Iridener/DSS/Cooley/PRIMGRP.HTML

Miller, David L. �Edited by (18)

The Individual and the Social Self

Chicago, The University of Chicago Press

Mitchell, William C. (167)

Sociological Analysis and Politics

Engelwood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice Hall, Inc.

The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

George Herbert Mead

www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/mead.htm

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Famine in Africa

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Famine is most prevalently defined as "acute starvation associated with a sharp increase in mortality."(www.africana.com) This, as far as one can see, direct definition, however, avoids the much more complicated question of why people reach the point of starvation. Conflicting to popular media coverage of the issue, famine in Africa is not a brief event, nor an immediate, unavoidable outcome of drought or other climatic misfortunes. Rather, research on the history of famine shows that several factors typically contribute to a societys or regions vulnerability to starvation, and that some of the causes of famine have changed substantially over the past century. Famine is an entity in which destroys thousands of lives on a daily basis, in the paragraphs to follow the complete definition of famine will be addressed, up to and including how many people are at risk and also what countries are most greatly affected by famine. The root causes of famine in Africa will also be addressed, followed by possible solutions to the famine crisis Africa has been, and currently is experiencing.

The spread of famine in Africa now threatens well over 0 million people and is overwhelming the capacity of relief agencies to address the problem. "There are estimated to be 600 million who do not have enough to eat. 400 million are actually starving. 000 million suffer from malnutrition."(181, Poverty and Famines, Oxford Clarendon press) These numbers are increasing by the minute and without assistance from the ever-hesitant developed world, Africa is doomed to a reoccurring endless cycle of famine, starvation and poverty.

"Famine can be defined as a temporary failure of food production or distribution systems in a particular region that leads to increased mortality due to starvation and diseases that result from lack of food."

(Global Connections Canadian and World Issues by Bruce Clark & John Wallace)Custom Essays on Famine in Africa

What many would not know is that famine is not one subject in it-self, there are many contributors accumulating to the overall terminology.

One of the most commonly known contributing factors that seems to be supplying famine with even more drive than ever before is hunger and malnutrition. In order to be healthy and active, we must have food in adequate quantity, quality and variety to meet our energy and nutrient requirements. Without them, children cannot develop their potential to the fullest, and adults will experience difficulty in maintaining or expanding theirs. Malnutrition in the form of deficiencies of essential vitamins and minerals continues to cause severe illness or death in thousands of people living in sub-Saharan Africa. In result, even mild forms of deficiencies can consequently hold a child back from their development and their ability to learn. Many of these consequences could possibly be alleviated by making sure adequate food supplies are widespread in variety and they also provide the right amount of essential vitamins and minerals. Starvation is an extreme form of hunger in which people suffer from a complete lack of energy and essential minerals. As the condition continues to worsen the body wastes away as tissue is perpetually consumed to provide protein and energy.

To put an end to the ever-evolving famine that Africa is facing doesn't even singularly begin with making sure enough food is made and available to the people. However, that even growing enough food doesn't guarantee that hunger and widespread famine would ever be eliminated. People need to be able to access nutritionally adequate food no matter what for a person to be able to lead a healthy life. The offering of everyone, through education of the problem, is extremely crucial to making sure the rights of the people in Africa to be free of famine that has stricken its economy for far too long is secure.

"Millions are at risk is nothing is done to help them. People are slowly running out of food. The drought destroyed crops last year and there are no imports. It's only a matter of time before we see visible hunger on the streets."

(Mercy Crops Food Program Manager Tom Ewert, from southern Africa, UN web sites.)

When discussing famine as a single subject one is prompted to inquire as to how many people are at risk of experiencing a genuine famine? More than seven million people are in immediate need of food assistance in southern Africa. (According to Mercy Crop workers in the area and the United Nations World Food Program, UN web sites) The amount of people in need of foreign aid has risen dramatically to a staggering 14.4 million, increased from May's approximate 1.8 million, with credible fears of a famine outbreak. According to officials associated with the United Nations up to 15 million people on the Horn of Africa could possibly also be faced with serious famine conditions in the up coming months.

Famine is undoubtedly hitting Africa much more strongly than ever before. North of the equator the entire Sahel region is at risk of a severe famine outbreak. (181, Poverty and Famines) Present famines are taking place in Liberia, Sudan and Somalia, the three main leading causes of famine in these places are failure of rain, war and things such as "cash crops"(the export of crops instead of using the food produced for themselves) If you were to head south of the equator, you would find the main location of famine to be situated in sub-Saharan Africa. This is not the only continent affected by famine, all around the world, places like Liberia, Iraq, China, India, Albania and Bosnia have all be stricken with famine.

To pinpoint a specific place, the Sahel is continually facing famine as a result of usual droughts. This can and has been linked with Eli Nino events that happened in the Pacific.

During 1 a serious drought had developed throughout southern Africa, affecting many countries, some as far as Kenya. It is estimated that 40 million people in that area were all facing extreme starvation during the month of September 1. The effect was population increase and it can be supported by the prime example of Zimbabwe. At the beginning of the century their population was 400,000 and then skyrocketed to 11 million. This would obviously suggest that this much larger number could certainly not survive especially with the current drought.

(www.angelfire.com/mac/egmatthews/worldinfo/problems/famine.htm)

The root causes of famine are many and somewhat complex in defining. The flow diagram attached will be of significant use in conveying that there is not just one cause of famine, wherever it may be affecting at the time. It's an accumulation of drought, flooding, governmental mismanagement and economic collapse have all come together to bring about the current crisis. Existing, widespread malnutrition and the highest rates of HIV/AIDS infection in the entire world compound the severity and the state of famine stricken regions. Each of the nations experiencing famine is faced with their own disastrous specific ambient factors. (Rabb, T. (editors), Hunger and History, Cambridge University Press)

Because of AIDS farming skills have been lost, agricultural extension services have declined, rural livelihoods have disintegrated, productive capacity to work the land has dropped and household earnings are shrinking while the cost of caring for the ill skyrockets it added.

War causes people to move off of their own land and prevents planting. As well as the lack of rain is connected with destruction of forests and other climatic changes. All of this results in a lack of terraces preventing collection of water, therefore the lack of trees prevents the rain from sinking in and absorbing into the land. The cause of famine in Mozambique is entirely placed upon the war, which has driven its people off of their land; Liberia is operating under some of the same conditions, experiencing famine following a civil war that destroyed a great amount of their infrastructure. (World Encyclopedia Collection, Blessed Trinity Library) Iraq is facing famine following the destruction of power supplies during the Gulf war including a failure to plant crops in land where the Kurds have been driven from their villages. Famine in the former Soviet Union is said to be arising as the result of extreme disorganization of the food distribution and absence of commercial networks. Also if the communist government in China collapses, although privatization of agriculture has already happened, leading to land being lost to urban building and rice to cash crops. Consequently, China's import of grains could destabilize the entire world's food markets. In Europe, Bosnia is experiencing famine as a result of war, and the collapse of the Communist economies in Albania had produced famine alleviated by European surpluses. (www.ifpri.org/pubs/fps//fps.8htm)

"Famines can result from either natural causes (for example, a drought or serious plant disease that causes crop failure) or human causes (for example, a civil war)" (Global Connections Canadian and World Issues by Bruce Clark & John Wallce)

Land that was once used to grow food for the local people of a village had come to be used for growing crops that would be sent to a "mother" or "developed" country. So this means that farmers did have the natural resources to produce an adequate amount of food rich in both quality/quantity and in variety. But, because they had no other form of income as a result of their country descending measureless steps behind in terms of industrialization, these primary industry workers were forced to export their crops to developed countries. Crops varied widely from colony to colony though included goods such as coffee, tea, sugar, bananas, cacao, cotton and silk. The end result of this was that some areas that has been self-supporting in food then became dependent on imports.

It's a distinct unarguable world issue that the food economy, even today, is unbalanced. Naturally, some parts of our world are much more productive than others, and one would imply that you could refer to it as the economic "food chain" So, still, we find ourselves plagued with the very same question we always have been, can the remaining funds of North America and Europe combined possibly be used to alleviate famine and hunger? Donating and/or selling items such as wheat or rice to Africa could evidently create a much stronger demand for imports. Meanwhile a good number of African countries already import a large amount of both wheat and bread, mainly because they cant grow it in their own land. The most obvious yet very controversial long term solution is to realize that there is a visible limit to the number of people a certain amount of land can sustain, the land can only support a certain amount of people before its natural resources begin to deteriorate forever. This particular idea especially proves to be true for many places like most of Australia and the Sahel where rainfall is uncertain and very scarce. The long-term solution definitely is something to think about mainly because many small islands have also adopted the very same idea. So, when thought about, couldn't the entire world, in actuality, be thought of as a small island?

Long term security must bring must bring food production and consumption into balance, mainly because at some time the number of consumers must cease to increase.

One of the most recent solutions that have even been discussed in class has been foreign aid. The international debt crisis plays a large role in this situation. Mainly because in the 170's when banks were willing to provide loans with low but floating interest rates, developing countries jumped at the idea of receiving funds, not ever thinking of when or how they would ever pay them back. That's exactly what happened, even today developing countries such as much of Africa is more than neck deep in millions of dollars worth of aid that has had no positive impact on its economy as a result of mismanagement of the funds. When a country is in as much debt as Africa it strongly prevents room for any type of human development because the crucial aspect of social services are largely cut back in order to attempt to even start paying back loans. Political responses to the issue are as follows "Majority of the debt will never be paid back, The losses have already occurred. But it will not in any way free up any new funds to fight AIDS or poverty. History strongly suggests that requirements attached to forgiveness (for fighting poverty or consulting the poor) will have only a modest effect, however well-intended."

(Grade 1 World Issues Notes provided by Mr. Lou Maida)

In conclusion by understanding the complete definition of famine and all that it addresses, including causes and solutions, one can then use this information not only for his/her own good, but the good of all mankind. The specific way a lot of people tend to react to the pictures of famine in Africa and around the world is more times than not, the question of "what can I do to help?" Many, either televised or not, reports on the issue seem to prompt people to ease their concerns by donating money. Although giving money to a justifiable cause is a nice gesture, there are many more, meaningful and just as fulfilling, possibly more so, things you could do that would also add to your generous donation. A great start to this could be educating yourself and others on the issue on hand, finding out about the countries citizens and there past and present situations. When we eventually gain the essential knowledge of famine and hunger and why it happens, majority of us are prone to ask questions and have our specific opinions on the matter intelligently challenged. With a combination of all of these tools, we are definitely better equipped to bring about substantial changes that will ass to the continuous fight against famine and hunger worldwide. Africa use to, and remains to be a continent of much promise. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) is committed to supplying Africans the support needed to strongly combat the enormous problem Africa is facing with many other organizations. North America and it's extremely modest donations work to provide the full-spirited and hopeful citizens of Africa with everything they are deserving of an education, employment, peace, financial stability, social justice in their courts, and a descent life complete with an established health care system.

There is no evidence to doubt that all famines in the modern world are preventable by human action; that when people die of starvation there is invariably some massive social failure (whether or not a natural phenomenon had an initiating role in the causal process); and that the responsibilities for that failure deserve explicit attention and analysis, not evasion.

( Dando, W., 180, The Geography of Famine, London Edward Arnold)

~!References!~

1.www.africana.com

.181, Poverty and Famines, Oxford Clarendon press

.Global Connections Canadian and World Issues by Bruce Clark & John Wallace

4.Mercy Crops Food Program Manager Tom Ewert, from southern Africa, UN web sites.

5.According to Mercy Crop workers in the area and the United Nations World Food Program, UN web sites

6. www.angelfire.com/mac/egmatthews/worldinfo/problems/famine.htmb sites

7. Rabb, T. (editors), Hunger and History, Cambridge University Press

8.World Encyclopedia Collection, Blessed Trinity Library

.www.ifpri.org/pubs/fps//fps.8htm

10.Grade 1 World Issues Notes provided by Mr. Lou Maida

11.Dando, W., 180, The Geography of Famine, London Edward Arnold

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